critical thinking academy

• All Courses

CRITICAL THINKER ACADEMY

Learn how to think, not what to think.

Master the essential thinking and essay writing skills that you should know before leaving high school (but which you will never be taught in high school)!

Learn new concepts and strategies for teaching your students how to think critically and write persuasively. It's not in the curriculum, but it's vital for success in school and in life!

Lifelong Learners

Discover what 2500 years of research in philosophy and science have taught us about the art and science of reasoning well!

"I tell everyone that critical thinking skills have been around for 2500 years, but for some reason it's never made it all the way down into the general population. Kevin's work at the Critical Thinker Academy is the bridge between the rigor of academia and the daily needs of us people out here who want to tame the complexity of the world we live in. We need this."

- Mark Halvorson

Featured Courses (there's more!)

Available until

"The way that Kevin delivers the material is digestible, interesting, thought provoking and thorough. He manages to fit so much thoughtful material into a mere 6 minutes, in such an effortless and comprehensive way. The curriculum is great for a beginner like me, because he breaks it down into manageable bite size pieces, in a way that honours the natural intelligence of a person."

- Sharon Allen

Any further questions before signing up? Email me.

Critical Thinking: What It Is and Why It Matters

Defining critical thinking dispositions and why they’re crucial..

Posted September 23, 2024 | Reviewed by Devon Frye

• Another way to think about and measure critical thinking is to include aspects of motivational dispositions.
• Dispositions include open-mindedness and a willingness to be reflective when evaluating information.
• People scoring low in critical thinking dispositions tend to “keep it simple” when something is complex.
• Critical thinking dispositions help individuals avoid oversimplification and can facilitate awareness of bias.

Critical thinking springs from the notion of reflective thought proposed by Dewey (1933), who borrowed from the work of philosophers such as William James and Charles Peirce. Reflective thought was defined as the process of suspending judgment, remaining open-minded, maintaining a healthy skepticism, and taking responsibility for one’s own development (Gerber et al., 2005; Stoyanov & Kirshner, 2007).

Kurland (1995) suggested, “Critical thinking is concerned with reason, intellectual honesty, and open-mindedness, as opposed to emotionalism, intellectual laziness, and closed-mindedness. Thus, critical thinking involves… considering all possibilities… being precise; considering a variety of possible viewpoints and explanations; weighing the effects of motives and biases; being concerned more with finding the truth than with being right…being aware of one’s own prejudices and biases” (p. 3). Thus, being able to perspective-take and becoming conscious of one’s own biases are potential benefits of critical thinking capacities.

Reviews of the critical thinking literature (e.g., Bensley, 2023) suggest that the assessment of this construct ought to include aspects of motivational dispositions. Numerous frameworks of critical thinking dispositions have been proposed (e.g., Bensley, 2018; Butler & Halpern, 2019; Dwyer, 2017); some commonly identified dispositions are open-mindedness, intellectual engagement, and a proclivity to take a reflective stance or approach to evaluating information and the views and beliefs of both oneself and others. Demir (2022) posited that critical thinking dispositions reflect persons’ attitudes toward and routine ways of responding to new information and diverging ideas, willingness to engage in nuanced and complex rather than either/or reductionistic thinking, and perseverance in attempts to understand and resolve complex problems.

Other examples of dispositions are inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, tolerance for ambiguity, thinking about thinking, honesty in assessing or evaluating biases, and willingness to reconsider one’s own views and ways of doing things (Facione et al., 2001). Individual personality attributes associated with these proclivities include a need for cognition (a desire for intellectual stimulation), which is positively associated with critical thinking, and the need for closure (a motivated cognitive style in which individuals prefer predictability, firm answers, and rapid decision making ) and anti-intellectualism (a resentment of “the life of the mind” and those who represent it), both negatively associated with critical thinking.

Further, an ideological component that can impede critical thinking is dogmatism . In addition, rigid, dichotomous thinking impedes critical thinking in that it oversimplifies the complexity of social life in a pluralistic society (Bensley, 2023; Cheung et al., 2002; Halpern & Dunn, 2021) and tries to reduce complicated phenomena and resolve complex problems via “either/or” formulations and simplistic solutions.

In other words, folks with low critical thinking dispositions would tend to “keep it simple” when something is really quite complicated, and think it absolute terms and categories rather than seeing “the gray” in between the black and white extremes.

In sum, critical thinking dispositions are vitally important because they may help individuals avoid oversimplifying reality; they also permit perspective-taking and can facilitate their awareness of diversity and systematic biases, such as racial or gender bias . Some research has indicated that critical thinking dispositions uniquely contribute to academic performance beyond general cognition (Ren et al., 2020), and may help to reduce unsubstantiated claims and conspiracy beliefs (Bensley, 2023; Lantian et al., 2021).

But before we can study the potential impact of critical thinking dispositions, it is necessary to have a reliable, valid, and hopefully brief measure for this construct. I will discuss the development and validation of a measure of critical thinking dispositions in another post.

Bensley, D.A. ( 2023.) Critical thinking, intelligence, and unsubstantiated beliefs: An integrative review. Journal of Intelligence, 1 , 207. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11110207

Bensley, D.A. (2018). Critical thinking in psychology and everyday life: A guide to effective thinking . New York: Worth Publishers.

Butler, H.A., & Halpern, D.F. (2019). Is critical thinking a better model of intelligence? In Robert J. Sternberg (Ed.) The Nature of Intelligence (pp. 183–96). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cheung, C.-K, Rudowicz. E., Kwan, A., & Yue, X.. (2002). Assessing university students’ general and specific criticalthinking. College Student Journal, 36 , 504 – 25.

Demir, E. (2022). An examination of high school students’ critical thinking dispositions and analytical thinking skills. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 6 , 190–200. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202217357

Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process . Lexington: Heath and Company.

Dwyer, C. P. (2017). Critical thinking: Conceptual perspectives and practical guidelines . Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Facione, P., Facione, N,C,, & Giancarlo, C.A.F. (2001(. California Critical Disposition Inventory . Millbrae: California Academic Press.

Gerber, S., Scott, L., Clements, D.H., & Sarama, J. (2005). Instructor influence on reasoned argument in discussion boards. Educational Technology, Research & Development, 53 , 25–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02504864

Halpern, D. F., & Dunn, D.S. (2021). Critical thinking: A model of intelligence for solving real-world problems. Journal of Intelligence, 9 , 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9020022

Kurland, D. (1995). I know what it says… What does it mean? Critical skills for critical reading . Belmont: Wadsworth.

Lantian, A., Bagneux, V., Delouvee, S., & Gauvrit, N. (2021). Maybe a free thinker but not a critical one: High conspiracybelief is associated with low critical thinking ability. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 35 , 674 – 84. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3790

Ren, X., Tong, Y., Peng, P. & Wang, T. (2020). Critical thinking predicts academic performance beyond general cognitiveability: Evidence from adults and children. Intelligence, 82 , 101487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2020.101487

Stoyanov, S., & Kirschner, P. ( 2007). Effect of problem solving support and cognitive styles on idea generation:Implications for technology-enhanced learning. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 40 , 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2007.10782496

Kyle D. Killian, Ph.D., LMFT is the author of Interracial Couples, Intimacy and Therapy: Crossing Racial Borders.

• Find a Therapist
• Find a Treatment Center
• Find a Psychiatrist
• Find a Support Group
• Find Online Therapy
• United States
• Brooklyn, NY
• Chicago, IL
• Houston, TX
• Los Angeles, CA
• New York, NY
• Portland, OR
• San Diego, CA
• San Francisco, CA
• Seattle, WA
• Washington, DC
• Asperger's
• Bipolar Disorder
• Chronic Pain
• Eating Disorders
• Passive Aggression
• Personality
• Goal Setting
• Positive Psychology
• Stopping Smoking
• Low Sexual Desire
• Relationships
• Child Development
• Self Tests NEW
• Therapy Center
• Diagnosis Dictionary
• Types of Therapy

It’s increasingly common for someone to be diagnosed with a condition such as ADHD or autism as an adult. A diagnosis often brings relief, but it can also come with as many questions as answers.

• Emotional Intelligence
• Gaslighting
• Affective Forecasting
• Neuroscience

Protect your data

This site uses cookies and related technologies for site operation, and analytics as described in our Privacy Policy . You may choose to consent to our use of these technologies, reject non-essential technologies, or further manage your preferences.

• Resume and Cover Letter
• What Is Critical Thinking?...

What Is Critical Thinking? Definition and Examples

5 min read · Updated on September 25, 2024

Use critical thinking skills to move your career forward

Have you ever stopped to ask yourself why some people seem to be able to effortlessly resolve problems, lead a business, and make sound decisions? It could be down to their critical thinking skills. Critical thinking skills bring clarity, but not everyone has them. 

In this article, we're asking: what is critical thinking, exactly, and how can it help my career?

What is critical thinking?

Let's begin with a critical thinking definition. According to Merriam-Webster , critical thinking is the act of thinking critically in order to solve problems, evaluate information, and discern biases. Critical thinking skills are generally considered to be a high-level reasoning attribute required to get ahead in any sector. 

So, what is a critical thinker? We'd consider a critical thinker to be someone who is open-minded, questioning, and willing to look at things from different points of view in order to arrive at a logical conclusion. 

Why are critical thinking skills important to a career?

Critical thinkers have a lot to offer in the workplace and can be highly valued employees. The ability to think critically means that they're likely to make better decisions, feel more confident and empowered, and take an informed approach to problem-solving. Clearly, these are all desirable traits and ones possessed by successful senior leaders . 

If you can develop and demonstrate strong critical thinking skills, you'll be positioning yourself for career success. As a bonus, critical thinking skills are transferable, meaning that you'll be able to use them to propel your career in any industry. 

Examples of critical thinking skills

Critical thinking skills come in all shapes and sizes, so let's take a look at the most common.

Critical thinkers don't just take information at face value. They dive deep, analyzing and evaluating information, data, and statistics in order to draw a fully informed conclusion. 

Logic and reasoning are key for critical thinkers. They're driven by facts rather than emotion and make decisions based on careful consideration of all options. 

Problem-solving

Problem-solving is where critical thinkers excel. They're able to resolve complex challenges by going beyond the obvious, taking various sources into consideration, and showing a willingness to consider different ideas. 

Listening and open-mindedness

Active listening is a necessary skill for critical thinkers. Rather than relying solely on their own instincts and judgments, critical thinkers take input from multiple people and places and give fair weight to each. 

Managing ambiguity

As they're open to new ideas and information and use logic and analysis to solve problems, critical thinkers are well-equipped to manage and navigate through ambiguity to develop realistic solutions. 

Examples of using critical thinking in the workplace 

Let's look now at some examples of how those critical thinking skills can be applied practically in the workplace. 

Resolving conflict

A leader with good critical thinking skills will evaluate both sides in any workforce disagreement, forging a path to the truth and developing solutions acceptable to all parties. 

Providing feedback

In situations such as performance appraisal or mentoring, critical thinking is necessary to evaluate strengths and weaknesses and to provide constructive feedback.

Allocating resources

When projects or teams are competing for the same people or assets, critical thinking is required to evaluate, prioritize, and resolve the situation. 

Planning future strategy

Business leaders are never content to roll with the status quo. Driving a business forward requires constant re-evaluation, input, and analysis. The critical thinker will use all the information at their disposal to resolve existing issues and plan strategies that will put the business in a strong position in the future. 

Ways to improve your critical thinking skills

While some people seem to be natural critical thinkers, it is possible to develop this skill with time and effort. Try some of these techniques to build your own critical thinking abilities: 

Ask questions to gather information 

Don't accept information at face value 

Analyze arguments and evidence before making decisions

Seek multiple perspectives

Be aware of biases – your own and those of others 

Participate in discussions and read widely

Show off your critical thinking skills on your resume

In this article, we've provided a definition of critical thinking, showing why critical thinking skills are valued in the workplace and looking at some practical examples. Does your resume reflect these skills , though? Use your resume to show how you can solve business problems, accommodate different perspectives, and account for biases, and you'll soon be rocketing up that career ladder. 

Do you need a new perspective on your resume? The experts at TopResume are waiting to give you constructive feedback. Send yours in now for a free resume review to ensure you're capturing the skills needed for your next step. 

Recommended reading: 

7 Best Personal Skills for Your Resume (With Examples)

Five Steps To Create a Problem-Solving Process (Plus Tips!)

Hard Skills Explained (and the Top 8 for Your Resume)

Related Articles:

From Bland to Beautiful: How We Made This Professional's Resume Shine

Short Cover Letter Samples: Effective Examples for Job Applications

17 Best Skills to Put on Your Resume (with Examples)

See how your resume stacks up.

Career Advice Newsletter

Our experts gather the best career & resume tips weekly. Delivered weekly, always free.

Thanks! Career advice is on its way.

Share this article:

Let's stay in touch.

Subscribe today to get job tips and career advice that will come in handy.

Your information is secure. Please read our privacy policy for more information.

Structured problem solving with a Critical Thinking Framework

Managers are solving problems and making decisions through the day. These are the toughest and riskiest part of any managers job. A good decision or effective solution to a problem moves the company forward while a bad one can be disastrous. While decisions and solutions cannot be judged by their outcomes, good decisions and effective solutions are often the result of a good decision making and problem solving process rather than any individuals creativity or intelligence.

What’s lacking in todays problem solving and decision making processes is a holistic approach. A problem presents itself, we get solution ideas, do some basic evaluation and go ahead and finalize a  solution. The same goes for many decisions as well. What we don’t do is to consider all the dimensions that go into making a good decision or developing a solution.  We are also inconsistent in the dimensions we evaluate in problem solving and decision making. For some decisions we may consider implications and for others completely ignore any deliberation.

So what can we do to bring in a holistic approach to problem solving and decision making ? We first define what are the dimensions that go into making good decisions and develop a framework. We then use this framework when evaluating decisions or solutions. We have a framework which we find adapts itself very well to a holistic approach, and we call this the ‘critical thinking framework’

Our Critical thinking framework consists of seven dimensions:

• Define the problem
• Gather the evidence
• Analyze the evidence
• Develop alternative solutions, freeze on one
• Explicitly articulate the assumptions made
• Explicitly articulate the implactions of the decision or solution
• Outline from whose point of view the solution or decision has been finalized (In organizations there are different stakeholders: Managers, Reportees, Shareholders, customers. Stakeholder views on decisions and solutions may also vary between functional areas. For example the Sales Manager is very happy with price discounting as a strategy to drive sales but the Marketing manager is not happy to do so.

So here’s a diagrammatic representation of the Critical thinking framework

The steps are not sequential

While you have numbering for each element of the framework, the steps need not be followed in any sequential order, and we are likely to flip back and forth across different elements as we go about addressing the issue on hand. What is important about the framework is that we ensure we have addressed each of the elements in the framework.

Define the problem:

In the problem definition step of the critical thinking framework, there are several variables that must be considered, including the possibility of starting with only the symptoms of a problem, the scope of the problem, and framing bias.

Firstly, it is important to note that sometimes a problem may initially be identified by its symptoms, rather than its root cause. In such cases, the problem definition may evolve as more information is gathered and analyzed. Therefore, it is essential to remain open-minded and flexible when defining the problem, recognizing that the initial definition may change as more information becomes available.

Next, it is important to consider the scope of the problem, which involves determining the boundaries of the problem and the extent to which it affects different stakeholders. This requires an understanding of who is impacted by the problem and how. Defining the scope of the problem helps to ensure that the subsequent steps of the critical thinking process are focused and relevant.

Finally, framing bias should also be considered when defining the problem. Framing bias refers to the tendency to view a problem from a particular perspective, which may influence the definition of the problem and the subsequent analysis. To avoid framing bias, it is important to consider different perspectives and engage in open-minded thinking.

Overall, the problem definition step involves a process of refining the problem statement by considering new information and perspectives. It is important to define the problem in a specific, measurable, and objective way while also considering the scope and framing bias. By doing so, the subsequent steps of the critical thinking framework can be more effective in solving the problem or making a decision.

Gather the evidence:

When gathering evidence, it is important to approach the process with an open mind and not be biased towards a particular hypothesis or solution. All possible and plausible causes of the problem should be considered so that the evidence gathered is not limited to only confirming the initial hypothesis.

If the problem is related to a decision, it is important to consider all possible decision options and gather evidence that is relevant to each of those options. This will help in evaluating each option objectively and making an informed decision.

Evidence for Analysis : You may just gather data and perform simple inferences, or you If you want to use some analytical frameworks or statistical analysis. Sometimes you may know how you will analyze the data upfront, and sometimes you may form an idea later. To that extent evidence gathering also could be an iterative step between analysis and evidence gathering. 

Additionally, it is important to be aware of the possibility of missing out on some causal hypotheses, and therefore, important evidence, during the evidence gathering process. This could be due to various reasons such as a lack of awareness or bias towards certain hypotheses. Therefore, it is important to approach the evidence gathering process with an open mind and consider all possible causal hypotheses to ensure that all necessary evidence is collected.

In terms of sources of evidence, it is important to consider both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources include data and information collected directly from individuals or entities related to the problem, such as surveys or interviews. Secondary sources include data and information that has already been collected by other researchers or organizations, such as research studies or historical data. It is important to ensure that the evidence gathered is reliable, valid, and sufficient to support the subsequent analysis, regardless of whether it is a primary or secondary source.

Overall, the evidence gathering step is crucial in providing the necessary information to support the subsequent analysis and decision-making process. It is important to approach this step with an open mind, consider all possible causes and decision options, and ensure that the evidence gathered is reliable, valid, and sufficient.

Analyze the evidence:

During the analysis stage of problem-solving, the evidence collected in the previous step is examined and evaluated to gain a deeper understanding of the problem and its root causes. This involves applying critical thinking skills to interpret and make sense of the data, looking for patterns, identifying relationships between variables, and evaluating the strength of the evidence.

The analysis should be rigorous and systematic to ensure that all relevant data is considered, and that any biases or assumptions are identified and addressed. Depending on the nature of the problem and the data collected, different analytical techniques may be used, such as statistical analysis, trend analysis, or cause-and-effect analysis. The goal of the analysis stage is to identify the underlying causes of the problem and to gain insights that will inform the development of effective solutions.

The outcomes of the analysis stage will depend on the problem being solved, the data collected, and the analytical techniques used. Some possible outcomes of the analysis stage include:

• Identification of root causes: The analysis may reveal the underlying factors that are contributing to the problem, allowing for targeted solutions that address the root cause rather than just the symptoms.
• Insights and recommendations: The analysis may provide insights into the problem and its causes, which can inform the development of recommendations or solutions.
• Identification of gaps in knowledge: The analysis may reveal areas where additional data or information is needed to fully understand the problem.
• Refinement of problem definition: The analysis may reveal that the original problem definition was incomplete or inaccurate, and may lead to a refinement of the problem statement.
• Validation of assumptions: The analysis may confirm or challenge assumptions that were made during the problem-solving process, allowing for a more accurate understanding of the problem and its causes.

Overall, the analysis stage is critical for identifying the underlying causes of the problem and informing the development of effective solutions.

Using analytical frameworks in the analytical stage:

In the analytical stage we can use any number of general analysis frameworks. The evidence we have gathered become the input data for these frameworks. Also if we intend to use these framework, we should ensure that we collect the necessary data. Here are some indicative frameworks that may be used in business problems:

SWOT analysis: a strategic planning tool used to identify and evaluate strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in a business or organization.

PESTEL analysis: a framework used to analyze and monitor external macro-environmental factors that impact a business or organization, including political, economic, social, technological, environmental, and legal factors.

Porter's Five Forces: a framework used to analyze the competitive intensity and attractiveness of an industry, including the bargaining power of suppliers and buyers, the threat of new entrants and substitutes, and the intensity of rivalry among existing competitors.

Root Cause Analysis: a structured approach to identifying the underlying causes of a problem or incident, which helps in identifying appropriate solutions and preventing recurrence of the problem.

Cost-benefit analysis: a framework used to evaluate the costs and benefits of different alternatives or decisions, which helps in selecting the most economically efficient solution.

Decision Tree Analysis: a graphical representation of the different alternatives and potential outcomes of a decision, which helps in selecting the optimal solution based on expected value and probabilities.

These are just a few examples of analytical frameworks that can be used depending on the nature of the problem or decision at hand

After conducting the analysis, the next step is to develop alternative solutions and choose the best one. This involves using the insights gained from the analysis to generate different options for solving the problem. It's important to consider a range of solutions and not limit oneself to a single option.

Once a range of solutions has been identified, each option should be evaluated for its potential effectiveness, feasibility, and practicality. This involves weighing the pros and cons of each solution and assessing its potential impact on the problem at hand.

After evaluating each solution, one should then freeze on the most appropriate one. The decision should be based on a balance of available evidence, practical considerations, and an understanding of the assumptions, implications, and points of view that underpin each option.

It's worth noting that the process of finding a solution is rarely straightforward, and it's not uncommon to go back and forth between the analysis and solution stages multiple times as one refines their understanding of the problem and the available options for solving it.

Assumptions: Explicitly articulate the assumptions made

When making a decision or formulating a solution, it is common to make certain assumptions about the situation. These assumptions can relate to data that is not currently available but could become available later, the future, or other factors that could affect the outcome of the decision or solution. It is important to explicitly articulate these assumptions for several reasons.

It helps to clarify and validate the reasoning behind the solution. By explicitly stating the assumptions, decision makers can evaluate their validity and determine if they are reasonable and justifiable.

It facilitates communication and understanding among stakeholders. By clearly stating the assumptions, decision makers can ensure that all stakeholders have a common understanding of the solution and the reasoning behind it.

It enables decision makers to anticipate and prepare for potential challenges and risks. By identifying and articulating the assumptions, decision makers can be aware of the potential limitations and risks of the solution and be prepared to address them.

It supports ongoing evaluation and improvement of the solution. By explicitly stating the assumptions, decision makers can continue to evaluate and refine the solution as new information becomes available or as the situation changes.

We may make assumptions about data that is not currently available to us. By stating these assumptions, we can be aware of the potential limitations of our decision or solution and take steps to mitigate these limitations. Additionally, some assumptions may be critical to the success of the solution. In this case, decision-makers may want to conduct additional research to verify these assumptions and reduce the need for guesswork.

By explicitly stating our assumptions, we can be alert to any developments that may contradict them. This allows us to react quickly and adjust our approach if necessary. For example, if an assumption about the market changes, we may need to re-evaluate our strategy.

Decision-makers and other stakeholders may be able to validate data and remove the need for assumptions because of prior experience or knowledge. However, they can only do this if they are aware of the assumptions being made. By explicitly articulating assumptions, we can leverage the expertise of those around us to improve the quality of our decision-making.

T he other benefits of explicitly articulating assumptions are :

Implications: Explicitly articulate the implications of the  solution :

Considering the implications of our  solution is critical to ensuring that we make an informed decision that takes into account all the potential consequences. Every solution has both positive and negative implications, and it is important to consider both to make an effective decision.

Explicitly articulating the implications helps decision-makers understand the potential consequences of the  solution. It also allows them to assess whether the implications are acceptable or not. If the implications are not acceptable, decision-makers may decide to choose a different solution that has fewer negative consequences.

Moreover, by considering and explicitly articulating the implications of our solution, we can proactively identify potential negative effects and develop strategies to mitigate or minimize them. This can help us avoid or minimize any negative impacts on stakeholders, reduce risks and uncertainty, and ensure that the solution aligns with the organization's goals and values.

Overall, considering and explicitly articulating the implications of our solution helps us make a more informed decision that takes into account both the positive and negative consequences. It also enables us to proactively prepare for any negative effects and minimize their impact, ultimately leading to a more effective and sustainable solution

Point of view: Considering the points of view of stakeholders

It is important to consider the points of view of all stakeholders because every decision or solution can have both positive and negative impacts on different individuals or groups. By taking into account the perspectives of all stakeholders, decision-makers can ensure that the solution is fair, ethical, and sustainable in the long run.

 Moreover  during the process of explicitly considering the points of view of stakeholders, the problem solver may realize that a particular stakeholder's view may be negative and not acceptable to the organization. This may prompt the problem solver to look for another solution that takes into account the needs and concerns of all stakeholders.

For example, let's consider a company that is considering outsourcing some of its operations to a low-cost country to save costs. From the perspective of the company, this decision may seem like a no-brainer as it would result in significant cost savings. However, this decision would also have implications for various stakeholders such as employees, customers, and the local community.

From the employees' perspective, outsourcing may lead to job losses and decreased job security. From the customers' perspective, the quality of products or services may decline due to cultural or language barriers. From the local community's perspective, outsourcing may lead to a decline in the local economy due to job losses and reduced business activity.

Therefore, it is important for the company to consider the viewpoints of all stakeholders before making a decision on outsourcing. This would involve conducting a thorough analysis of the costs and benefits of outsourcing, including its impact on employees, customers, and the local community. By doing so, the company can ensure that its decision is fair and sustainable in the long run.

• All Courses

What is a Good Argument?

Learn the fundamental concepts for identifying and evaluating good and bad arguments..

NOTE : This is a FREE course, courtesy of the Critical Thinker Academy's monthly supporters. It's included in the site-wide bundle which unlocks every course in the Academy.

CLICK TO LEARN MORE .

This is where every course in critical thinking begins, with a discussion of the most basic and foundational concepts necessary for argument analysis. What is an argument? What is a premise? What is a conclusion? What is a good argument? What is a bad argument?

This course also introduces the single most important distinction in argument analysis, the distinction between the truth or falsity of the premises of an argument, and the logical relationship between the premises and the conclusion.

The last section discusses two important types of argument, “deductive” and “inductive”, and how they relate to scientific reasoning.

What Will I Learn in This Course?

In this course you'll learn:

• what an argument is and what is required to have an argument
• the distinction between good arguments and bad arguments
• the distinction between evaluating the logic of an argument and evaluating the truth or falsity of the premises
• the distinction between true premises and plausible premises
• the distinction between valid, strong and weak arguments
• the difference between deductive and inductive arguments

What Do I Get With This Course?

When you enroll in this course you get

• 12 video lectures, totaling 58 minutes of viewing time
• Full transcripts for each of the lectures, embedded below the videos
• Discussion comments for each of the lectures, allowing you to ask and respond to questions and comments
• Quiz questions that allow you to review and test your understanding of the concepts
• A pdf ebook suitable for printing or viewing on a desktop computer or tablet device

This course will give you the basic vocabulary for talking about good versus bad arguments. From here you can go on to study more focused topics in argument analysis, such as formal and informal fallacies.

• Start Welcome and Overview (2:10)
• Start PDF Ebook - Basic Concepts in Logic and Argumentation
• Start Quiz Question Discussion
• Preview 1. What is an Argument? (4:17)
• Start Quiz: What is an Argument?
• Preview 2. What is a Claim? (4:25)
• Start Quiz: What is a Claim?
• Preview 3. What is a Good Argument (I)? (3:58)
• Start Quiz: What is a Good Argument (I)?
• Preview 4. Identifying Premises and Conclusions (5:34)
• Start Quiz: Identifying Premises and Conclusions
• Start Discuss the Quiz Questions in This Section
• Preview 1. The Truth Condition (6:29)
• Start Quiz: The Truth Condition
• Preview 2. The Logic Condition (5:49)
• Start Quiz: The Logic Condition
• Preview 3. Valid versus Invalid Arguments (5:29)
• Start Quiz: Valid vs Invalid Arguments
• Preview 4. Strong versus Weak Arguments (6:38)
• Preview Quiz: Strong vs Weak Arguments
• Preview 5. What is a Good Argument (II)? (1:57)
• Start Quiz: What is a Good Argument (II)?
• Preview 1. Deductive Arguments and Valid Reasoning (2:18)
• Start Quiz: Deductive Arguments and Valid Reasoning
• Preview 2. Inductive Arguments and Strong Reasoning (1:41)
• Start Quiz: Inductive Arguments and Strong Reasoning
• Preview 3. Inductive Arguments and Scientific Reasoning (9:41)
• Start Quiz: Inductive Arguments and Scientific Reasoning
• Start Congratulations!
• Start What's Next?

Get started now!

What is a good argument - free coupon discount.

• Search Close search
• Find a journal
• Search calls for papers
• Journal Suggester
• Open access publishing

We’re here to help

Find guidance on Author Services

Your download is now in progress and you may close this window

• Choose new content alerts to be informed about new research of interest to you
• Easy remote access to your institution's subscriptions on any device, from any location
• Save your searches and schedule alerts to send you new results
• Export your search results into a .csv file to support your research

Login or register to access this feature

Register now or learn more

Thinking critically about critical thinking: validating the Russian HEIghten® critical thinking assessment

• Cite this article
• https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1672640

• Full Article
• Figures & data
• Reprints & Permissions
• Read this article /doi/full/10.1080/03075079.2019.1672640?needAccess=true

Critical thinking has been identified as a crucial general skill contributing to academic and career success in the twenty-first century. With the increasing demands of the modern workplace and a global trend of accountability in higher education, educators and employers pay great attention to the development of students' critical thinking skills throughout their training. Therefore, there is an urgent need worldwide for an updated and comprehensive assessment tool of college-level critical thinking. This paper reports on the preliminary validation for the Russian version of the HEIghten ® Critical Thinking assessment developed by Educational Testing Service (ETS). Based on a large Russian college student sample ( N  = 1060), we evaluated the psychometric quality of the items, individual and institution-level reliability, external validity, and student perceptions. Overall, the results suggested good psychometric quality, except that a few items showed low discriminating power and should be further examined with a second wave of data collection. IRT analyses revealed testlet effects and supported the essentially unidimensional structure of the measure. Appropriate correlations with external criteria provided support for the measure's convergent validity. Implications of the preliminary validation study results and the future research agenda, especially the need to collect longitudinal data, are discussed.

• Critical thinking
• learning outcome assessment
• dimensionality
• IRT modeling

Acknowledgements

The article was prepared within the framework of the Basic Research Program of the National Research University Higher School of Economics and funded by the Russian Academic Excellence Project '5-100'. Support from the SRG Research Program of the University of Macau (Reference Number: SRG2018-00141-FSS) is also gratefully acknowledged.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

1 Among the Russian higher educational institutions, federal universities (FUs; such as The Ural Federal University) and national research universities (NRUs; such as The Moscow Aviation Institute) are classified as elite universities. Elite universities are very selective, offer high quality educational programs, and are consistently ranked as top universities of the country. Six Russian elite universities (NRUs) participated in the project.

Log in via your institution

Log in to taylor & francis online, restore content access.

• 48 hours access to article PDF & online version
• Article PDF can be downloaded
• Article PDF can be printed
• 30 days online access to complete issue
• Article PDFs can be downloaded
• Article PDFs can be printed
• Back to Top

Related Research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations. Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.

• People also read
• Recommended articles

To cite this article:

Download citation.

Attend the 2024 Fall Academy on Critical Thinking in the Arkansas Ozarks! Read More Here

Fall Critical Thinking Academy

November 15-17, 2024 in the arkansas ozarks.

New Book Release at the Fall Academy!

Critical thinking therapy: for happiness and self-actualization.

Online Courses in Critical Thinking

The spring semester begins january 21st, 2025.

Become Certified in the Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework

Online certification course begins february 5th, 2025.

The 2024 Fall Critical Thinking Academy

Join us in the Arkansas Ozarks November 15th-17th, 2024 for a unique learning experience led by Senior Fellows of the Foundation for Critical Thinking. Members of the  Center for Critical Thinking Community Online : please email us for another 20% off.

Online Course for Critical Thinking Certification

Those looking to be  certified in the Paul-Elder Approach to Critical Thinking can complete their facilitator training in the Spring 2025 Online Certification Course . Course meetings begin February 5th, 2025!

Critical Thinking Therapy: Book Release & Signing

Dr. Linda Elder's new book, Critical Thinking Therapy: For Happiness & Self-Actualization , will be released at the  2024 Fall Critical Thinking Academy . Copies will be available for purchase, and Dr. Elder will be signing copies for attendees. The Academy runs Nov. 15-17, 2024.

Free Webinar Workshop: Why Self-Deception Is a Tremendous Barrier to Critical Thinking

Join Dr. Gerald Nosich September 25th at 2:00 p.m. EDT (11:00 a.m. Pacific). This webinar workshop will illuminate some ways in which self-deception sabotages our development as reasoners, and it will offer strategies for recognizing and undercutting manifestations of our self-deceptive tendencies.

Critical Thinking Podcast

Only in the Center for Critical Thinking Community Online . Join Drs. Linda Elder and Gerald Nosich, international authorities on critical thinking, as they break new ground in the podcast Critical Thinking: Going Deeper .

Full-Semester Courses in Critical Thinking

Spring 2025 Registration Open Now. Study under the guidance of a first-generation Paulian Scholar from the comfort of your home or office! Complete coursework on your own time with continual feedback.

I found that I was fitted for nothing so well as for the study of Truth . . . with desire to seek, patience to doubt, fondness to meditate, slowness to assert, readiness to consider, carefulness to dispose and set in order . . . being a man that neither affects what is new nor admires what is old, and that hates every kind of imposture.

~ francis bacon (1605), our mission.

For more than 40 years, our goal has been to promote essential change in education and society by cultivating fairminded critical thinking — thinking which embodies intellectual empathy, intellectual humility, intellectual perseverance, intellectual integrity, and intellectual responsibility.

international translations

• Share on twitter
• Share on facebook

Russia’s limits on critical thinking are hitting its academic performance

Stricter political and administrative controls on what can be said have led to the creation of a pioneering ‘free university’, say katarzyna kaczmarska and dmitry dubrovsky.

• Share on linkedin
• Share on mail

Recent months have seen heated debates in Russia about the limits of faculty and students’ rights to undertake public speaking and engage in political activism.

Lecturers at the prestigious  Higher School of Economics  (HSE), once considered Russia’s most liberal university, have spent the summer worrying that their criticisms of the political status quo might put an end to their teaching careers.

A master’s programme was apparently shut down when the university’s management realised that Yegor Zhukov – a prominent blogger and participant in the 2019 protests against fraudulent practices in the elections for the Moscow city parliament – was among the newly admitted cohort. He was also badly  beaten  just hours after he posted a video on YouTube explaining that he had been enrolled and then, less than two hours later, was crossed off a list of students admitted.

It has proved contentious for scholars to speak out in public and for students to engage in political activity at least since the 2019 protests. Zhukov was an undergraduate at the HSE when he was  arrested  following an unsanctioned opposition rally that summer. This led many fellow students, staff and alumni to express solidarity. However, though the management initially supported calls for Zhukov’s release, it later shifted to a policy seemingly designed to avoid future clashes with the state authorities.

In 2020, the university introduced new  internal regulations  requiring staff and students to refrain from using their university affiliations in public statements that could trigger “negative social reactions and/or have negative reputational consequences for the university”. Though these regulations are careful to emphasise that there are no restrictions on academics speaking out about their “research results” and matters of “professional competence”, keeping within the guidelines is likely to be difficult, particularly for those researching current social or political developments in Russia. This attempt to establish a boundary between “legitimate” academic research and “unacceptable” participation in public debate amounts to another way of silencing critically minded scholars.

After the journalist Svetlana Prokopyeva was  found guilty  in July of “justifying terrorism” when she dared to ask about the connection between the repressive political regime in Russia and a suicide bomb outside the Federal Security Service office in Arkhangelsk, several HSE employees produced a paper citing values such as “academic ethics” to delegitimise debate about terrorism and its causes. A few scholars  responded  by pointing out that such a stance could close down research into social phenomena such as terrorism, state terror, revolution and liberation movements.

The HSE has also decided not to extend the contracts of a number of academics for the coming academic year. Though the university’s management has defended its decision on grounds of efficiency and necessary restructuring, those adversely affected argue that the dismissals were motivated by an urge to get rid of those who were most  outspoken  and critical of the political system in Russia, including the abruptly amended  constitution .

The British Association for Slavonic and East European Studies (BASEES) published a  letter  this July in which the president shared his unease “about the integrity of the process by which decisions over continuing employment and terminations of contracts are taken” and emphasised that these developments undermine the HSE’s position as a close partner for scholars and universities in the UK. And Russia’s  University Solidarity  trade union  called for  a protest (using a hashtag translating as “you can’t shut us up”) against measures to punish scholars and students for their outspokenness.

Then, in late August, a group of scholars, including those whose contracts at HSE have not been renewed, issued a  manifesto  announcing the establishment of Russia’s first Free University and stating that one of their main goals is to free lecturers from excessive administrative pressures (among which they mean to include the pressure not to speak out).

Among the group is Gasan Guseynov, whose social media post last year criticising abuses of the Russian language by journalists and politicians  prompted  HSE management to look into whether it “violated academic ethics in public speaking”. This led to a committee’s  recommending  that Guseynov make a public apology for the “deliberate dissemination of ill-considered and irresponsible statements that have caused damage to the university’s reputation”.

All of this took place against a background of Russian universities failing to achieve the planned leap in international rankings; more and more insecure  employment contracts ; and  legislation  requiring that education in schools and universities should include not only knowledge and skills, but also spiritual and moral values.

A recent  analysis  of the obstacles to scientific progress in Russia concludes that research managers do not prioritise the creation of the kind of new scientific knowledge likely to be recognised by the international academic community. This study was authored by people close to Alexei Kudrin, who represents the liberal-leaning wing within the ruling elite.

What even this group fails to mention, however, is that the problem does not reside so much in management structures as in a political system that crushes creativity and punishes critical thinking and activism.

Katarzyna Kaczmarska is lecturer in politics and international relations at the University of Edinburgh . Dmitry Dubrovsky is an associate research fellow at the Centre for Independent Social Research  in Russia.

Register to continue

Why register?

• Registration is free and only takes a moment
• Once registered, you can read 3 articles a month
• Sign up for our newsletter

Or subscribe for unlimited access to:

• Unlimited access to news, views, insights & reviews
• Digital editions
• Digital access to THE’s university and college rankings analysis

Already registered or a current subscriber? Login

Related articles

Is Russia’s 5-100 Project working?

Simon Baker weighs the evidence for the transformation of the country’s higher education system

Russian science reforms ‘ambitious but unrealistic’

Experts question whether new National Science Project will have wide impact beyond creating ‘a few islands of research excellence’

Russian curbs on foreigners show rise of science nationalism

Kremlin action follows US reluctance to work with China, and comes as Moscow moves closer to Beijing

You might also like

Canadian recruitment collapse ‘a warning’ to UK and Australia

Leading anglophone nations risk squandering hard-built reputation for welcoming international students, say sector leaders