encompasses A), B), and C).
has come to be used to refer to …
is generally understood to mean …
has been used to refer to situations in which …
carries certain connotations in some types of …
is a relatively new name for a Y, commonly referred to as …
The definition of X has evolved. There are multiple definitions of X. Several definitions of X have been proposed. In the field of X, various definitions of X are found. The term ‘X’ embodies a multitude of concepts which … This term has two overlapping, even slightly confusing meanings. Widely varying definitions of X have emerged (Smith and Jones, 1999). Despite its common usage, X is used in different disciplines to mean different things. Since the definition of X varies among researchers, it is important to clarify how the term is …
The meaning of this term | has evolved. has varied over time. has been extended to refer to … has been broadened in recent years. has not been consistent throughout … has changed somewhat from its original definition … |
X is a contested term. X is a rather nebulous term … X is challenging to define because … A precise definition of X has proved elusive. A generally accepted definition of X is lacking. Unfortunately, X remains a poorly defined term. There is no agreed definition on what constitutes … There is little consensus about what X actually means. There is a degree of uncertainty around the terminology in … These terms are often used interchangeably and without precision. Numerous terms are used to describe X, the most common of which are …. The definition of X varies in the literature and there is terminological confusion. Smith (2001) identified four abilities that might be subsumed under the term ‘X’: a) … ‘X’ is a term frequently used in the literature, but to date there is no consensus about … X is a commonly-used notion in psychology and yet it is a concept difficult to define precisely. Although differences of opinion still exist, there appears to be some agreement that X refers to …
The meaning of this term | has been disputed. has been debated ever since … has proved to be notoriously hard to define. has been an object of major disagreement in … has been a matter of ongoing discussion among … |
The term ‘X’ is used here to refer to … In the present study, X is defined as … The term ‘X’ will be used solely when referring to … In this essay, the term ‘X’ will be used in its broadest sense to refer to all … In this paper, the term that will be used to describe this phenomenon is ‘X’. In this dissertation, the terms ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are used interchangeably to mean … Throughout this thesis, the term ‘X’ is used to refer to informal systems as well as … While a variety of definitions of the term ‘X’ have been suggested, this paper will use the definition first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as …
For Smith (2001), X means … Smith (2001) uses the term ‘X’ to refer to … Smith (1954) was apparently the first to use the term … In 1987, psychologist John Smith popularized the term ‘X’ to describe … According to a definition provided by Smith (2001:23), X is ‘the maximally … This definition is close to those of Smith (2012) and Jones (2013) who define X as … Smith, has shown that, as late as 1920, Jones was using the term ‘X’ to refer to particular … One of the first people to define nursing was Florence Nightingale (1860), who wrote: ‘… …’ Chomsky writes that a grammar is a ‘device of some sort for producing the ….’ (1957, p.11). Aristotle defines the imagination as ‘the movement which results upon an actual sensation.’ Smith et al . (2002) have provided a new definition of health: ‘health is a state of being with …
X is defined by Smith (2003: 119) as ‘… …’ The term ‘X’ is used by Smith (2001) to refer to … X is, for Smith (2012), the situation which occurs when … A further definition of X is given by Smith (1982) who describes … The term ‘X’ is used by Aristotle in four overlapping senses. First, it is the underlying … X is the degree to which an assessment process or device measures … (Smith et al ., 1986).
This definition | includes … allows for … highlights the … helps distinguish … takes into account … poses a problem for … will continue to evolve. can vary depending on … was agreed upon after … has been broadened to include … |
The following definition is | intended to … modelled on … too simplistic: useful because … problematic as … inadequate since … in need of revision since … important for what it excludes. the most precise produced so far. |
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Lesson 21: Definition of Terms
A word or phrase used to describe a thing or to express concept, especially In a particular kind of language or branch of study.
Guidelines in defining terms:
1. Definition of terms works like a glossary but have a different twist. It is placed on the beginning of the research paper to tell the meaning of the terms used in the said paper.
2. Only terms, words, or phrases which have special or unique meanings in the study are defined.
3. There are two types of definition of terms. Conceptual and Operational Terms.
Theoretical Definition are based be taken from encyclopedias, books, magazines and newspaper article, dictionaries, and other publications but the researcher must acknowledge his/her sources.
Conceptual Definition are based on how the researcher may develop his own definition from the characteristics of the term define.
4. The term should be arranged alphabetically .
5. When the definition are taken from encyclopedias, books, magazine and newspaper articles, dictionaries and other publications, the researcher must acknowledge his sources .
Definition of terms
Theoretical Definition
Knowledge - the fact or condition of knowing something with familiarity gained through experience or association.
Conceptual Definition
Knowledge - it is a condition of being aware to a certain problem-cyberbullying.
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Meta: Journal des traducteurs, 2000
The study is intended to describe the methods of defining terms found in the theses of the English Foreign Language (EFL) students of IAIN Palangka Raya. The method to be used is a mixed method, qualitative and quantitative. Quantitative approach was used to identify, describe the frequencies, and classify the methods of defining terms. In interpreting and explaining the types of method to be used, the writer used qualitative approach. In qualitative approach, data were described in the form of words and explanation. The findings show that there were two methods of defining terms, dictionary approach and athoritative reference.
Terminology, 1997
Eurasia Review, 2022
Terminology is the field of lexicology (or the study of lexicon) that deals with specialized vocabularies and sets of terms related to particular fields (aviation terminology, medical terminology, stylistics, agriculture, etc.). Terminology as a new academic field is located at the boundary among linguistics, logic, theory of existence, information science and specialized areas of science and technology, and in the interdisciplinary area.
During the past several decades, the theory of terminology has been a subject of debates in various circles. The views on terminology as a scientific discipline vary considerably. Currently, there are a number of treatments of this field and a number of debatable questions involved. Is terminology a science, or just a practice? does terminology have a status of separate scholarly discipline with its own theory or does it owe its theoretical assumptions to more consolidated disciplines?
Chapter 1.1 of my book A Model for an English-Polish Systematic Dictionary of Chemical Terminology
Practical Tools for Leaders and Teams, 2015
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ELETO (Hellenic Society for Terminology), 2006
Workplace Communication III. VAKKI Publications 12. , 2020
Mental Enlightenment Scientific-Methodological Journal, 2019
BRILL eBooks, 2007
Discourse, 2020
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2015
ArXiv, 2012
Techniques for introducing unfamiliar terms., 2020
Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration, 2023
In M. Kline & G. Anderson (Eds.), Proceedings of the CATESOL State Conference, 2006. Orlinda, CA: CATESOL, 2006
Applied Linguistics, 1992
Glossary of research terms.
This glossary is intended to assist you in understanding commonly used terms and concepts when reading, interpreting, and evaluating scholarly research. Also included are common words and phrases defined within the context of how they apply to research in the social and behavioral sciences.
Elliot, Mark, Fairweather, Ian, Olsen, Wendy Kay, and Pampaka, Maria. A Dictionary of Social Research Methods. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2016; Free Social Science Dictionary. Socialsciencedictionary.com [2008]. Glossary. Institutional Review Board. Colorado College; Glossary of Key Terms. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Glossary A-Z. Education.com; Glossary of Research Terms. Research Mindedness Virtual Learning Resource. Centre for Human Servive Technology. University of Southampton; Miller, Robert L. and Brewer, John D. The A-Z of Social Research: A Dictionary of Key Social Science Research Concepts London: SAGE, 2003; Jupp, Victor. The SAGE Dictionary of Social and Cultural Research Methods . London: Sage, 2006.
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Priya ranganathan.
Department of Anaesthesiology, Tata Memorial Centre, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
1 Department of Gastroenterology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
There are several types of research study designs, each with its inherent strengths and flaws. The study design used to answer a particular research question depends on the nature of the question and the availability of resources. In this article, which is the first part of a series on “study designs,” we provide an overview of research study designs and their classification. The subsequent articles will focus on individual designs.
Research study design is a framework, or the set of methods and procedures used to collect and analyze data on variables specified in a particular research problem.
Research study designs are of many types, each with its advantages and limitations. The type of study design used to answer a particular research question is determined by the nature of question, the goal of research, and the availability of resources. Since the design of a study can affect the validity of its results, it is important to understand the different types of study designs and their strengths and limitations.
There are some terms that are used frequently while classifying study designs which are described in the following sections.
A variable represents a measurable attribute that varies across study units, for example, individual participants in a study, or at times even when measured in an individual person over time. Some examples of variables include age, sex, weight, height, health status, alive/dead, diseased/healthy, annual income, smoking yes/no, and treated/untreated.
A large proportion of research studies assess the relationship between two variables. Here, the question is whether one variable is associated with or responsible for change in the value of the other variable. Exposure (or intervention) refers to the risk factor whose effect is being studied. It is also referred to as the independent or the predictor variable. The outcome (or predicted or dependent) variable develops as a consequence of the exposure (or intervention). Typically, the term “exposure” is used when the “causative” variable is naturally determined (as in observational studies – examples include age, sex, smoking, and educational status), and the term “intervention” is preferred where the researcher assigns some or all participants to receive a particular treatment for the purpose of the study (experimental studies – e.g., administration of a drug). If a drug had been started in some individuals but not in the others, before the study started, this counts as exposure, and not as intervention – since the drug was not started specifically for the study.
Observational studies are those where the researcher is documenting a naturally occurring relationship between the exposure and the outcome that he/she is studying. The researcher does not do any active intervention in any individual, and the exposure has already been decided naturally or by some other factor. For example, looking at the incidence of lung cancer in smokers versus nonsmokers, or comparing the antenatal dietary habits of mothers with normal and low-birth babies. In these studies, the investigator did not play any role in determining the smoking or dietary habit in individuals.
For an exposure to determine the outcome, it must precede the latter. Any variable that occurs simultaneously with or following the outcome cannot be causative, and hence is not considered as an “exposure.”
Observational studies can be either descriptive (nonanalytical) or analytical (inferential) – this is discussed later in this article.
Interventional studies are experiments where the researcher actively performs an intervention in some or all members of a group of participants. This intervention could take many forms – for example, administration of a drug or vaccine, performance of a diagnostic or therapeutic procedure, and introduction of an educational tool. For example, a study could randomly assign persons to receive aspirin or placebo for a specific duration and assess the effect on the risk of developing cerebrovascular events.
Descriptive (or nonanalytical) studies, as the name suggests, merely try to describe the data on one or more characteristics of a group of individuals. These do not try to answer questions or establish relationships between variables. Examples of descriptive studies include case reports, case series, and cross-sectional surveys (please note that cross-sectional surveys may be analytical studies as well – this will be discussed in the next article in this series). Examples of descriptive studies include a survey of dietary habits among pregnant women or a case series of patients with an unusual reaction to a drug.
Analytical studies attempt to test a hypothesis and establish causal relationships between variables. In these studies, the researcher assesses the effect of an exposure (or intervention) on an outcome. As described earlier, analytical studies can be observational (if the exposure is naturally determined) or interventional (if the researcher actively administers the intervention).
Based on the direction of inquiry, study designs may be classified as forward-direction or backward-direction. In forward-direction studies, the researcher starts with determining the exposure to a risk factor and then assesses whether the outcome occurs at a future time point. This design is known as a cohort study. For example, a researcher can follow a group of smokers and a group of nonsmokers to determine the incidence of lung cancer in each. In backward-direction studies, the researcher begins by determining whether the outcome is present (cases vs. noncases [also called controls]) and then traces the presence of prior exposure to a risk factor. These are known as case–control studies. For example, a researcher identifies a group of normal-weight babies and a group of low-birth weight babies and then asks the mothers about their dietary habits during the index pregnancy.
The terms “prospective” and “retrospective” refer to the timing of the research in relation to the development of the outcome. In retrospective studies, the outcome of interest has already occurred (or not occurred – e.g., in controls) in each individual by the time s/he is enrolled, and the data are collected either from records or by asking participants to recall exposures. There is no follow-up of participants. By contrast, in prospective studies, the outcome (and sometimes even the exposure or intervention) has not occurred when the study starts and participants are followed up over a period of time to determine the occurrence of outcomes. Typically, most cohort studies are prospective studies (though there may be retrospective cohorts), whereas case–control studies are retrospective studies. An interventional study has to be, by definition, a prospective study since the investigator determines the exposure for each study participant and then follows them to observe outcomes.
The terms “prospective” versus “retrospective” studies can be confusing. Let us think of an investigator who starts a case–control study. To him/her, the process of enrolling cases and controls over a period of several months appears prospective. Hence, the use of these terms is best avoided. Or, at the very least, one must be clear that the terms relate to work flow for each individual study participant, and not to the study as a whole.
Figure 1 depicts a simple classification of research study designs. The Centre for Evidence-based Medicine has put forward a useful three-point algorithm which can help determine the design of a research study from its methods section:[ 1 ]
Classification of research study designs
In the next few pieces in the series, we will discuss various study designs in greater detail.
Conflicts of interest.
There are no conflicts of interest.
Any untoward occurrence in a research participant. The occurrence need not have a clear causal relationship with the individual’s participation in the research; an AE can be any unfavorable and unintended sign, symptom, event, or occurrence affecting a participant’s physical, mental, social, financial, legal, or psychological well-being. An unanticipated AE should be reported to the committee as soon as possible after it is identified.
Agreement by an individual not competent to give legally valid informed consent (e.g., a child or cognitively impaired person) to participate in research. An assent is typically paired with permission from a parent or guardian, and together they comprise the informed consent to participate.
An officer of an institution with the authority to speak for and legally commit the institution to adherence to the requirements of the federal regulations regarding the involvement of human subjects in biomedical and behavioral research.
A statement of basic ethical principles governing research involving human subjects issued by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects in 1979. View a summary of the Belmont Report . The Belmont Report principles permeate human subjects research to this day.
An ethical principle discussed in the Belmont Report that entails an obligation to protect persons from harm. The principle of beneficence can be expressed in two general rules: 1) do not harm; and 2) protect from harm by maximizing possible benefits and minimizing possible risks of harm.
A valued or desired outcome associated with a research project. Anticipated benefits may express the probability that subjects and society may benefit from the research procedures. Research may benefit the individual or society as a whole. If research will not benefit individuals, it is required to provide a reasonable likelihood of resulting in benefits to society. UNLV’s human research application requests information about the direct benefits accruing to the research participants and to society. Compensation and incentives given to participants are not considered benefit.
This is a certificate issued by the National Institutes of Health that protects identifiable research information of a sensitive nature from forced disclosure. It is typically requested when the researcher believes his/her research objectives could not be met without this form of protection.
Persons who have not attained the legal age for consent to treatment or procedures involved in the research, as determined under the applicable law of the jurisdiction in which the research will be conducted [45 CFR 46 46.401(a)]. In Nevada, individuals younger than 18 years of age are considered children for most research situations, and informed consent then consists of the child’s assent and the parent’s permission.(See “Assent.”)
The act of forcing or compelling one to take action against one’s will. Coercion can be overt or perceived, and it can occur when the researcher is in a position of authority or power over the subject (for example, teachers over students or physicians over patients). It can also occur when incentives become so great that the participant will only participate to attain the incentive.
Having either a psychiatric disorder (e.g., psychosis, neurosis, personality or behavior disorders, or dementia) or a developmental disorder (e.g., mental retardation) that affects cognitive or emotional functions to the extent that capacity for judgment and reasoning is significantly diminished. Others, including persons under the influence of or dependent on drugs or alcohol, those suffering from degenerative diseases affecting the brain, terminally ill patients, and persons with severely disabling physical handicaps, may also be compromised in their ability to make decisions in their best interests.
Human subjects research projects conducted by more than one institution. Each institution is responsible for safeguarding the rights and welfare of human subjects. Arrangements for joint review, relying upon one qualified IRB, or similar arrangements are acceptable. (Please contact the ORI-HS staff if this situation occurs; they can assist with the arrangements.)
Payment for participation in research. Compensation should be appropriate for the amount of effort involved, and not excessive and thereby coercive. Compensation is NOT considered a benefit.
Technically, a legal term, used to denote capacity to act on one’s own behalf; the ability to understand information presented, to appreciate the consequences of acting (or not acting) on that information, and to make a choice. (See also: Incompetence, Incapacity)
Pertains to the treatment of information that an individual has disclosed in a relationship of trust and with the expectation that it will not be divulged to others without permission in ways that are inconsistent with the understanding of the original disclosure.
Defined as a set of conditions in which an investigator’s judgment concerning a primary interest (e.g., subject welfare, integrity of research) could be biased by a secondary interest (e.g., personal or financial gain). See information regarding UNLV’s Conflict of Interest/Compensated Outside Services Policy .
See “Informed Consent.”
Subject(s) used for comparison who are not given the treatment under study or who do not have a given condition, background, or risk factor that is the object of study. Control conditions may be concurrent (occurring more or less simultaneously with the condition under study) or historical (preceding the condition under study). When the present condition of subjects is compared with their own condition on a prior regimen or treatment, the study is considered historically controlled.
The other primary scholar or researcher involved in conducting the research. Co-PIs must also meet the UNLV PI eligibility requirements.
Giving subjects previously undisclosed information about the research project following completion of their participation in research.
A code of ethics for clinical research approved by the World Medical Association in 1964 and widely adopted by medical associations in various countries. It was revised most recently in 2008.
Any study that is not truly experimental (e.g., quasi-experimental studies, correlational studies, record reviews, case histories, and observational studies).
A legal status conferred upon persons who have not yet attained the age of legal competency as defined by state law (for such purposes as consenting to medical care), but who are entitled to treatment as if they had by virtue of assuming adult responsibilities such as marriage, procreation, or being self-supporting and not living at home. (See also “Mature Minor.”)
Fair or just; used in the context of selection of subjects to indicate that the benefits and burdens of research are fairly distributed.
The code of federal regulations (45 CFR 46.101(b)) identifies several categories of minimal risk research as exempt from the Federal Policy for the Protection of Research Subjects. This determination must not be made by the PI, but by the IRB or someone appointed by the IRB. For more information, see the U.S. Health and Human Services website, “ Exempt Research and Research That May Undergo Expedited Review .”
The code of federal regulations (45 CFR 46.110 and 21 CFR 56.110) identifies several categories of minimal risk research that may be reviewed through an expedited review process. For more information, see the U.S. Health and Human Services website on “ Guidance on Expedited Review Procedures .”
This act defines the rights of students and parents concerning reviewing, amending, and disclosing educational records and requires written permission to disclose personally identifiable information from a student’s education record, except under certain circumstances such as an order of subpoena. 1
The federal policy that provides regulations for the involvement of human subjects in research. The policy applies to all research involving human subjects conducted, supported, or otherwise subject to regulation by any federal department or agency that takes appropriate administrative action to make the policy applicable to such research. Currently, 16 federal agencies have adopted this policy, commonly referred to as “The Federal Policy,” but also known as the “Common Rule.”
A formal written, binding commitment that is submitted to the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) Office of Human Research Protections (OHRP) in which an institution agrees to comply with applicable regulations governing research with human subjects and stipulates the procedures through which compliance will be achieved. UNLV’s assurance number is FWA00002305.
Review of proposed research at a convened meeting at which a majority of the membership of the IRB are present, including at least one member whose primary concerns are in nonscientific areas. For the research to be approved, it must receive the approval of a majority of those members present at the meeting. Generally, studies that undergo full board review are studies involving greater than minimal risk, risky, or novel procedures or vulnerable populations.
An individual who is authorized under applicable state or local law to give permission on behalf of a child for general medical care. In Nevada, under NRS 159.0805, guardians may not give permission for a child to enter into a research study unless a court order has been obtained.
The rule which protects the privacy of individually identifiable health information. The privacy rule provides federal protections for personal health information held by covered entities and gives patients specific rights with respect to that information.
Individuals whose physiological or behavioral characteristics and responses are the object of study in a research project. Under the federal regulations, human subjects are defined as living individual(s) about whom an investigator conducting research obtains: (1) data through intervention or interaction with the individual; or (2) identifiable private information.
Federal regulations define identifiable to mean that the identity of the individual subject is or may readily be ascertained by the investigator or may be associated with the information.
This refers to a person’s mental status and means inability to understand information presented, to appreciate the consequences of acting (or not acting) on that information, and to make a choice. The term is often used as a synonym for incompetence.
A legal term meaning inability to manage one’s own affairs, and often used as a synonym for incapacity.
A person’s voluntary agreement, based upon adequate knowledge and understanding of relevant information, to participate in research or to undergo a diagnostic, therapeutic, or preventive procedure. In giving informed consent, subjects may not waive or appear to waive any of their legal rights, or release or appear to release the investigator, the sponsor, the institution, or agents thereof from liability for negligence.
Institutional research (also called internal research) is the gathering of data from or about UNLV students, faculty, and staff by university offices or organizations, with the sole intent of using the data for internal informational purposes or for required data-collection purposes. This data would not be made generalizable. Examples include surveys to improve university services or procedures; ascertain the opinions, experiences, or preferences of the university community; or to provide necessary information to characterize the university community. This kind of data gathering does not require IRB review unless respondents are queried about sensitive aspects of their own behavior. For debatable projects, investigators should submit an exclusion review form to the ORI-HS.
A specially constituted, federally mandated review body established or designated by an entity to protect the welfare of human subjects recruited to participate in biomedical or behavioral research. UNLV has two IRBs – Social/Behavioral and Biomedical.
The federal regulations define interaction as “communication or interpersonal contact between investigator and subject.”
The federal regulations define intervention as both physical procedures by which data are gathered (for example, venipuncture) and manipulations of the subject or the subject’s environment that are performed for research purposes.
This refers to a researcher conducting the project. Investigators can be principal investigators or co-principal investigators. Students are always listed as student investigators.
A formal agreement between UNLV and another FWA-holding institution that allows the one IRB to serve as the “IRB of Record” for protocols involving collaborative research between UNLV and the other institution.
A term utilized when an institution assumes the IRB responsibilities for a human subject research protocol conducted at another institution. An IRB authorization agreement signed by institutional officials at both institutions is required.
An ethical principle discussed in the Belmont Report requiring fairness in distribution of burdens and benefits; those that bear the burdens of research should also receive the benefits. There must be fair and equitable selection of subjects.
A person authorized either by statute or by court appointment to make decisions on behalf of another person. In human subjects research, an individual or judicial or other body authorized under applicable law to consent on behalf of a prospective subject to the subject’s participation in the procedure(s) involved in the research.
Someone who has not reached adulthood (as defined by state law) but who may be treated as an adult for certain purposes (e.g., consenting to medical care). Note that a mature minor is not necessarily an emancipated minor. (See also “Emancipated Minor.”)
A risk is minimal when the probability and magnitude of harm or discomfort anticipated in the proposed research are not greater, in and of themselves, than those ordinarily encountered in daily life or during the performance of routine physical or psychological examinations or tests. For example, the risk of drawing a small amount of blood from a healthy individual for research purposes is no greater than the risk of doing so as part of routine physical examination. Note: The definition of minimal risk for research involving prisoners differs somewhat from that given for non-institutionalized adults.
Any change to an IRB-approved study protocol, regardless of the level of review it receives initially.
A federally mandated member of an Institutional Review Board who has no ties to the parent institution, its staff, or faculty. This individual is usually from the local community (e.g., business person, attorney, or teacher).
A code of research ethics developed during the trials of Nazi war criminals following World War II and widely adopted as a standard during the 1950s and 1960s for protecting human subjects.
The office within the Department of Health and Human Services that is responsible for implementing DHHS regulations (45CFR46) governing research involving human subjects.
The UNLV office, formerly known as the Office for the Protection of Research Subjects (OPRS), that serves as an administrative hub for the UNLV IRB’s oversight of human subjects research.
The agreement of parent(s) to the participation of their child in research.
The scientist or scholar with primary responsibility for the design and conduct of a research project. See UNLV’s PI Eligibility Policy for those who are eligible for automatic PI status and how to apply for PI status.
An individual involuntarily confined in a penal institution, including persons: 1) sentenced under a criminal or civil statue; 2) detained pending arraignment, trial, or sentencing; and 3) detained in other facilities (e.g., for drug detoxification or treatment of alcoholism) under statutes or commitment procedures providing such alternatives to criminal prosecution or incarceration in a penal institution. Note that this includes adjudicated youth.
Control over the extent, timing, and circumstances of disclosing personal information (physical, behavioral, or intellectual) with others.
Defined by the federal regulations to include information about behavior that occurs in a context in which an individual can reasonably expect that no observation or recording is taking place. It also includes information that has been provided for specific purposes by an individual and which the individual can reasonably expect will not be made public (e.g., a medical record). Private information must be individually identifiable (i.e., the identity of the subject is or may readily be ascertained by the investigator or associated with the information) in order for the acquisition of the information to constitute research involving human subjects.
Studies designed to observe outcomes or events that occur subsequent to the identification of the group of subjects to be studied. Prospective studies need not involve manipulation or intervention but may be purely observational or involve only the collection of data.
Applies to survey research conducted in schools and states that parents have the right to inspect surveys and questionnaires distributed within schools. This amendment also specifies that parental permission must be obtained to have minors participate in surveys that disclose certain types of sensitive information. 1
The formal design or plan of an experiment or research study; specifically, the plan submitted to an IRB for review and to an agency for research support. The protocol includes a description of the research design or methodology to be employed, the eligibility requirements for prospective subjects and controls, the treatment regimen(s), and the proposed methods of analysis that will be performed on the collected data.
A systematic investigation (i.e., the gathering and analysis of information) designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge.
An ethical principle discussed in the Belmont Report requiring that individual autonomy be respected and persons with diminished autonomy be protected.
Research conducted by reviewing records from the past (e.g., birth and death certificates, medical records, school records, or employment records) or by obtaining information about past events elicited through interviews or surveys. Case control studies are an example of this type of research. This requires IRB review, as long as it involves private information about humans.
The probability of harm or injury (physical, psychological, social, or economic) occurring as a result of participation in a research study. Both the probability and magnitude of possible harm may vary from minimal to significant. Risks include immediate risks of study participation as well as risks of long-term effects.
This involves two types of data: 1) data collected by someone other than the principal investigator for a research or non-research purpose, or 2) data that was collected by the principal investigator, but when collected was not intended to be used for human subjects research. For data to be considered secondary data, the data must exist prior to the initiation of the current research study or be “on the shelf” at the time of study initiation. Principal investigators must submit and receive approval for use of secondary human subjects data prior to initiation of the project.
A visit by agency officials, representatives, or consultants to the location of a research activity to assess the adequacy of IRB protection of human subjects or the capability of personnel to conduct the research.
“Participant” is the preferred term since it more correctly portrays the participatory aspects of research. Sometimes “subject” more accurately describes the role.
Free of coercion, duress, or undue inducement or influence. Used in the research context to refer to a subject’s decision to participate (or to continue to participate) in a research activity.
This glossary provides definitions of many of the terms used in the guides to conducting qualitative and quantitative research. The definitions were developed by members of the research methods seminar (E600) taught by Mike Palmquist in the 1990s and 2000s.
Members of the Research Methods Seminar (E600) taught by Mike Palmquist in the 1990s and 2000s. (1994-2024). Glossary of Key Terms. The WAC Clearinghouse. Colorado State University. Available at https://wac.colostate.edu/repository/writing/guides/.
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Definition of human subjects research.
Are you planning on conducting human subjects research? Learn more about research that meets the definition human subjects research, Federal regulation requirements, and whether your project may be considered exempt. Also, learn about NIH specific considerations and become more familiar with NIH policies, and other regulations as it relates to human subjects research protections.
The questionnaire is a tool to assist you with determining whether your project involves non-exempt human subjects research, meets the criteria for exempt human subjects research, or does not involve human subjects research.
This resource summarizes the definition of human subjects research and provides examples of human subjects research projects. It also describes what you will need when you are preparing your NIH application and what is required if you are funded.
This resource is a guide to simplify the understanding of the exemptions from the federal regulations for the protection of human subjects research. It summarizes Exemptions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, providing basic definitions, examples of studies that meet and do not meet the criteria of the exemption, and aspects one must consider when engaged in exempt or non-exempt human subjects research.
Studies involving the use of human specimens or data may or may not be considered to be research involving human subjects, depending on the details of the materials to be used. Use this flowchart to help determine if studies involving private information or biospecimens may meet the definition of human subjects research.
Learn about research activities which may qualify for a public health surveillance exclusion. Find useful information, key resources, and instructions for NIH applicants and offerors.
Numbers, Facts and Trends Shaping Your World
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About half of U.S. adults (52%) lived in middle-income households in 2022, according to a Pew Research Center analysis of the most recent available government data. Roughly three-in-ten (28%) were in lower-income households and 19% were in upper-income households.
Our calculator below, updated with 2022 data, lets you find out which group you are in, and compares you with:
Find more research about the U.S. middle class on our topic page .
Our latest analysis shows that the estimated share of adults who live in middle-income households varies widely across the 254 metropolitan areas we examined, from 42% in San Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara, California, to 66% in Olympia-Lacey-Tumwater, Washington. The share of adults who live in lower-income households ranges from 16% in Bismarck, North Dakota, to 46% in Laredo, Texas. The share living in upper-income households is smallest in Muskegon-Norton Shores, Michigan (8%), and greatest in San Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara, California (41%).
The calculator takes your household income and adjusts it for the size of your household. The income is revised upward for households that are below average in size and downward for those of above-average size. This way, each household’s income is made equivalent to the income of a three-person household. (Three is the whole number nearest to the average size of a U.S. household , which was 2.5 people in 2023.)
Pew Research Center does not store or share any of the information you enter.
We use your size-adjusted household income and the cost of living in your area to determine your income tier. Middle-income households – those with an income that is two-thirds to double the U.S. median household income – had incomes ranging from about $56,600 to $169,800 in 2022. Lower-income households had incomes less than $56,600, and upper-income households had incomes greater than $169,800. (All figures are computed for three-person households, adjusted for the cost of living in a metropolitan area, and expressed in 2022 dollars.)
The following example illustrates how cost-of-living adjustment for a given area was calculated: Jackson, Tennessee, is a relatively inexpensive area, with a price level in 2022 that was 13.0% less than the national average. The San Francisco-Oakland-Berkeley metropolitan area in California is one of the most expensive, with a price level that was 17.9% higher than the national average. Thus, to step over the national middle-class threshold of $56,600, a household in Jackson needs an income of only about $49,200, or 13.0% less than the national threshold. But a household in the San Francisco area needs an income of about $66,700, or 17.9% more than the U.S. threshold, to be considered middle class.
The income calculator encompasses 254 of 387 metropolitan areas in the United States, as defined by the Office of Management and Budget . If you live outside of one of these 254 areas, the calculator reports the estimates for your state.
The second part of our calculator asks about your education, age, race or ethnicity, and marital status. This allows you to see how other adults who are similar to you demographically are distributed across lower-, middle- and upper-income tiers in the U.S. overall. It does not recompute your economic tier.
Note: This post and interactive calculator were originally published Dec. 9, 2015, and have been updated to reflect the Center’s new analysis. Former Senior Researcher Rakesh Kochhar and former Research Analyst Jesse Bennett also contributed to this analysis.
The Center recently published an analysis of the distribution of the American population across income tiers . In that analysis, the estimates of the overall shares in each income tier are slightly different, because it relies on a separate government data source and includes children as well as adults.
Pew Research Center designed this calculator as a way for users to find out, based on our analysis, where they appear in the distribution of U.S. adults by income tier, as well as how they compare with others who match their demographic profile.
The data underlying the calculator come from the 2022 American Community Survey (ACS). The ACS contains approximately 3 million records, or about 1% of the U.S. population.
In our analysis, “middle-income” Americans are adults whose annual household income is two-thirds to double the national median, after incomes have been adjusted for household size. Lower-income households have incomes less than two-thirds of the median, and upper-income households have incomes more than double the median. American adults refers to those ages 18 and older who reside in a household (as opposed to group quarters).
In 2022, the national middle-income range was about $56,600 to $169,800 annually for a household of three. Lower-income households had incomes less than $56,600, and upper-income households had incomes greater than $169,800. (Incomes are calculated in 2022 dollars.) The median adjusted household income used to derive this middle-income range is based on household heads, regardless of their age.
These income ranges vary with the cost of living in metropolitan areas and with household size. A household in a metropolitan area with a higher-than-average cost of living, or one with more than three people, needs more than $56,600 to be included in the middle-income tier. Households in less expensive areas or with fewer than three people need less than $56,600 to be considered middle income. Additional details on the methodology are available in our earlier analyses .
Richard Fry is a senior researcher focusing on economics and education at Pew Research Center .
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(Illustration by John DiJulio, University Communications)
James Payne, an elementary school student, took in a deep breath and exhaled slowly.
“When you’re frustrated, when you’re having a bad day, just take some deep breaths and you’ll be good to go,” James said.
He learned that lesson as a student at Semple Elementary School in Louisville, Kentucky, as part of a University of Virginia research project billed as “the most comprehensive study ever undertaken of a 21st-century health and wellness curriculum in an elementary or secondary school setting.”
In the eight-year study published last month involving 45 elementary schools and nearly 10,000 students in Kentucky’s Jefferson County Public Schools, UVA researchers found a curriculum called “Flourish” had positive impacts on students, particularly in schools serving high-poverty communities.
Flourish “has been a game-changer for us,” Danielle Randle, Semple Elementary’s principal, said.
Flourish is part of UVA’s Compassionate Schools Project , a collaboration involving UVA’s School of Education and Human Development, its Youth-Nex Center, UVA’s Contemplative Sciences Center and the Jefferson County Public Schools. Flourish integrates mindfulness and movement into social and emotional learning to improve academic engagement, student well-being and behavior.
Students who participated in Flourish showed improvements in attention control, had a greater sense of support from their classmates and believed more strongly in their abilities to solve social problems. Researchers said the curriculum also helped prevent problem behaviors while increasing important developmental skills.
“I am always stressed that I am going to mess up,” said Maddie Pfannerstill, a Louisville elementary school student, “so I use mindfulness breathing to calm myself down.”
The students, teachers and administrators described their experiences with the project on a video produced about halfway through the study.
The Compassionate Schools Project, or CSP, “has been great for our school,” said Candace McMahon, a former CSP teacher at Luhr Elementary School in Kentucky.
“We have found that our kids have a lot of issues from their home lives that sometimes come with them to school that cause them to have trouble regulating their emotions and their focus,” McMahon said. “CSP really gives them specific strategies that they can use to put in place when they are feeling strained or stressed. And it will be strategies that will help them not only in school, but throughout life.”
Tish Jennings, left, and Patrick Tolan, professors in UVA’s School of Education and Human Development, were part of an eight-year study of schoolchildren to understand if using mindfulness practices in the classroom made them better students. (Photos by Tom Daly)
Jefferson County Public Schools Superintendent Marty Pollio said the findings confirm what teachers and principals participating in the study have been telling him.
“This curriculum can help all of our students, but especially those in schools with the most need, in terms of being ready to learn day in and day out,” Pollio said. “And its lasting, preventive effect on disruptive behavior not only helps that student, but also peers, teachers, schools and the whole system.”
The effects were stronger in schools serving high-poverty communities, where students saw improvements in social problem-solving and positive behavior and reductions in problem behavior.
“The results show that through a class with this curriculum that is part of regular education, students can gain important resiliency skills that have well-proven linkages to better academic, mental health and behavioral functioning long term,” Patrick Tolan, a UVA education professor and principal investigator of the study, said. “It is exciting to see that the benefits were stronger where the need was greater.”
UVA researchers say the program’s focus on contemplation, integrating compassion and mindful awareness practices is uniquely innovative.
“While an increasing number of social and emotional learning programs are incorporating mindfulness into their curricula, few take such a comprehensive approach in designing a program that fosters students’ psychological well-being, social and emotional skills, physical health and attention,” said Tish Jennings, a professor at the UVA School of Education and coauthor of the Flourish curriculum.
With positive results from a prior pilot study and funding from a coalition of partners, the researchers launched the 8-year randomized control trial. The effects of the curriculum were measured over 2 years with follow-up to trace its impact over the long term.
“The Flourish curriculum is still being implemented with integrity, and educators continue to benefit from the training and support,” said Alexis Harris, director of the Compassionate Schools Project and coauthor of Flourish.
“I have been amazed by the rigorous work of the researchers, educators, school administrators, funders, advisers, community partners and more, who all came together with us to fill an important void in knowledge,” Owsley Brown III, board member of the Contemplative Sciences Center at UVA, said. “Mindfulness practices are well known to be effective in many settings, and they are often used in schools, but there hasn’t been high-quality research on whether and how they support learning for young kids. Louisville has given a rich trove of answers, and this is just the beginning.”
Audrey Breen
Senior Writer and Research Communications Strategist School of Education and Human Development
[email protected] 434-924-0809
September 25, 2024
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A key term is a term that holds significant importance or plays a crucial role within the context of a research paper. It is a term that encapsulates a core concept, idea, or variable that is central to the study. Key terms are often essential for understanding the research objectives, methodology, findings, and conclusions.
use in most sections of your study. • Keep in mind, there is absolutely no need to incorporate common knowledge terms. What do we mean by this? Here is an example: Let us pretend we are doing research on nurturing international business research through global value chains literature. You do not need to include definitions for research,
Definition 2.1 (Conceptual definition) A conceptual definition articulates what exactly is to be measured or observed in a study. Definition 2.2 (Operational definition) An operational definition articulates how to capture (identify, create, measure, assess etc.) the value. Sometimes the definitions themselves aren't important, provided a ...
Introduction. One section that is often required in a dissertation is the "Definitions of Terms.". This gives your readers an understanding of the concepts or factors that will be discussed throughout your study, as well as contextual information as to how you will be using those concepts in your study. The "Definitions of Terms ...
Answer: Operational definition of terms refers to a detailed explanation of the technical terms and measurements used during data collection. This is done to standardize the data. Whenever data is being collected, it is necessary to clearly define how to collect the data. Data that is not defined runs the risk of being inconsistent and might ...
Without transparent and specific operational definitions, researchers may measure irrelevant concepts or inconsistently apply methods. Operationalization reduces subjectivity, minimizes the potential for research bias, and increases the reliability of your study. Your choice of operational definition can sometimes affect your results.
1.4 Understanding Key Research Concepts and Terms In this textbook you will be exposed to many terms and concepts associated with research methods, particularly as they relate to the research planning decisions you must make along the way. Figure 1.3 will help you contextualize many of these terms and understand the research process.
Nonetheless, when the use of operational definitions tified, a guiding sense of how they are best formulated and. offer significant benefits in terms of rationale and rigor. Thus, it is believe, to formulate a best-practices approach to operationalization, the practice is presented in research methods texts.
Introductory phrases. [which is] concerned with the measurement, causes, and consequences of social problems. which consists of three elements or components: (1) a question, problem, or hypothesis, (2) data, and (3) analysis and interpretation of data. of touch reading and writing for blind people in which raised dots on paper represent the ...
research terminologies in educational research. It provides definitions of many of the terms used in the guidebooks to conducting qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods of research. The terms are arranged in alphabetical order. Abstract A brief summary of a research project and its findings. A summary of a study that
Terms. A word or phrase used to describe a thing or to express concept, especially In a particular kind of language or branch of study. Guidelines in defining terms: 1. Definition of terms works like a glossary but have a different twist. It is placed on the beginning of the research paper to tell the meaning of the terms used in the said paper.
The study is intended to describe the methods of defining terms found in the theses of the English Foreign Language (EFL) students of IAIN Palangka Raya. The method to be used is a mixed method, qualitative and quantitative. Quantitative approach was used to identify, describe the frequencies, and classify the methods of defining terms.
In this activity, you will identify the specific terms to be used in your study. You will then explicate the definition of each term that you have identified to best represent your understanding and application of each term in your dissertation. Generally, a component of Definitions and Terms is to ground the definitions using the literature.
Colorado State University; Glossary A-Z. Education.com; Glossary of Research Terms. Research Mindedness Virtual Learning Resource. Centre for Human Servive Technology. University of Southampton; Miller, Robert L. and Brewer, John D. The A-Z of Social Research: A Dictionary of Key Social Science Research Concepts London: SAGE, 2003; Jupp, Victor.
An institution, department or center that agrees to be responsible for the conduct and administrative or coordinating functions of a multicenter research project. Co-principal investigator (co-PI). Mayo Clinic investigator who plays a key role in scientific development and conduct of the study.
Research study design is a framework, or the set of methods and procedures used to collect and analyze data on variables specified in a particular research problem. Research study designs are of many types, each with its advantages and limitations. The type of study design used to answer a particular research question is determined by the ...
For videos discussing the other parts of the Research Paper, here are the links:WRITING THE RESEARCH TITLE - https://youtu.be/hkh9WIleVEMWRITING THE BACKGROU...
Glossary of Common Research Terms Term Definition Abstract This is a brief summary of a research study and its results. It should tell you why the study was done, how the researchers went about it and what they found. Action Research Action research is used to bring about improvement or practical change. A group of people who know about a
A valued or desired outcome associated with a research project. Anticipated benefits may express the probability that subjects and society may benefit from the research procedures. Research may benefit the individual or society as a whole. If research will not benefit individuals, it is required to provide a reasonable likelihood of resulting ...
This glossary provides definitions of many of the terms used in the guides to conducting qualitative and quantitative research. The definitions were developed by members of the research methods seminar (E600) taught by Mike Palmquist in the 1990s and 2000s. ... A key element in experimental research is that participants in a study are randomly ...
The guide below defines some commonly used words and phrases. Let us know in the comments below or on our Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram pages if you'd like definitions of other words or parts of the research process! Accrual - the number of subjects who have completed or are actively in the process of completing a study. The accrual goal ...
Research Terms and Definitions. 1. Delimitations: address how the study will be narrowed in scope. 2. Descriptive statistics: those statistics that describe, organize, and summarize data (frequencies, percentages, descriptions of central tendency and descriptions of relative position). 3.
Your study is only designed to assess the pharmacokinetics, safety, and/or maximum tolerated dose of an investigational drug; Your study is utilizing a behavioral intervention, or measuring intent to change behavior; Only one aim or sub-aim of your study meets the clinical trial definition; Your study is no more than minimal risk
The simplified case studies apply the following four questions to determine whether NIH would consider the research study to be a clinical trial: Does the study involve human participants? Are the participants prospectively assigned to an intervention? Is the study designed to evaluate the effect of the intervention on the participants?
Subcategories of microplastic linked to source have since been described, including the terms 'primary' and 'secondary' microplastics, but this terminology has not been used consistently ().This is especially so for particles and fibers generated by wear, with multiple publications considering these to be primary microplastics [e.g., (13-15)], the remainder considering them as ...
"Features-in quick and convenient form-precise definitions of important terms and concise summaries of the salient ideas of critics working in the field who have made significant contributions to feminist literary studies, and points out how a feminist perspective has affected the development of emerging ideas and intellectual practices."
Purpose. NIH is mandated by the Public Health Service Act sec. 492B, 42 U.S.C. sec. 289a-2 to ensure the inclusion of women and members of racial and ethnic minority groups in all NIH-funded clinical research in a manner that is appropriate to the scientific question under study. The primary goal of this law is to ensure that research findings can be generalizable to the entire population.
Obtains, uses, studies, analyzes, or generates identifiable private information or identifiable biospecimens." Are you planning on conducting human subjects research? Learn more about research that meets the definition human subjects research, Federal regulation requirements, and whether your project may be considered exempt.
About half of U.S. adults (52%) lived in middle-income households in 2022, according to a Pew Research Center analysis of the most recent available government data. Roughly three-in-ten (28%) were in lower-income households and 19% were in upper-income households. Our calculator below, updated with ...
Flourish "has been a game-changer for us," Danielle Randle, Semple Elementary's principal, said. Flourish is part of UVA's Compassionate Schools Project, a collaboration involving UVA's School of Education and Human Development, its Youth-Nex Center, UVA's Contemplative Sciences Center and the Jefferson County Public Schools.Flourish integrates mindfulness and movement into social ...