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Introduction to programming in java, lecture 4: classes and objects.
Lecture presentation on programming in Java. Topics include: object oriented programming, defining classes, using classes, constructors, methods, accessing fields, primitives versus references, references versus values, and static types and methods.
Description.
Assigning a value to a variable seems straightforward enough; you simply assign the stuff on the right side of the '= 'to the variable on the left. Below statement 1 assigning value 10 to variable x and statement 2 is creating String object called name and assigning value "Amit" to it.
Assignment can be of various types. Let’s discuss each in detail.
Primitive Assignment:
The equal (=) sign is used for assigning a value to a variable. We can assign a primitive variable using a literal or the result of an expression.
Primitive Casting
Casting lets you convert primitive values from one type to another. We need to provide casting when we are trying to assign higher precision primitive to lower precision primitive for example If we try to assign int variable (which is in the range of byte variable) to byte variable then the compiler will throw an exception called "possible loss of precision". Eclipse IDE will suggest the solution as well as shown below. To avoid such problem we should use type casting which will instruct compiler for type conversion.
For cases where we try to assign smaller container variable to larger container variables we do not need of explicit casting. The compiler will take care of those type conversions. For example, we can assign byte variable or short variable to an int without any explicit casting.
Assigning Literal that is too large for a variable
When we try to assign a variable value which is too large (or out of range ) for a primitive variable then the compiler will throw exception “possible loss of precision” if we try to provide explicit cast then the compiler will accept it but narrowed down the value using two’s complement method. Let’s take an example of the byte which has 8-bit storage space and range -128 to 127. In below program we are trying to assign 129 literal value to byte primitive type which is out of range for byte so compiler converted it to -127 using two’s complement method. Refer link for two’s complement calculation (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two's_complement)
Java Code: Go to the editor
Reference variable assignment
We can assign newly created object to object reference variable as below
First line will do following things,
You can also assign null to an object reference variable, which simply means the variable is not referring to any object. The below statement creates space for the Employee reference variable (the bit holder for a reference value) but doesn't create an actual Employee object.
Compound Assignment Operators
Sometime we need to modify the same variable value and reassigned it to a same reference variable. Java allows you to combine assignment and addition operators using a shorthand operator. For example, the preceding statement can be written as:
The += is called the addition assignment operator. Other shorthand operators are shown below table
Operator | Name | Example | Equivalent |
---|---|---|---|
+= | Addition assignment | i+=5; | i=i+5 |
-= | Subtraction assignment | j-=10; | j=j-10; |
*= | Multiplication assignment | k*=2; | k=k*2; |
/= | Division assignment | x/=10; | x=x/10; |
%= | Remainder assignment | a%=4; | a=a%4; |
Below is the sample program explaining assignment operators:
Java Code Editor:
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Constructors.
Museum of Antiquities.
Your task is to design an Artifact class. There are three types of artifacts kept at the museum. We know nothing about the first type except the serial number assigned by the museum (for example: 212121). For the second type, we know the serial number and the culture that created it (for example: 212121, "Aztecs"). For the third type, we know the serial number, the culture that created it, and the century it was created in (for example: 212121, "Aztecs", 12).
Create an Artifact class that describes the antiquities kept at the museum, and write the required set of constructors for the class. Then, in the main() method, create one artifact of each kind.
Dating website
Let's create a user database for a dating website. But here's the problem: you forgot the required order of the arguments, and there's no technical documentation available. Design a User class, which will have the following fields: name ( String ), age ( short ), and height ( int ). Create the appropriate number of constructors, so that the name, age, and height can be specified in any order.
More reading: |
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Operators | Example | Explanation |
---|---|---|
= | x = 9 | Value 25 is assigned to x |
+= | x += 9 | This is same as x = x + 9 |
-= | x -= 9 | This is same as x = x – 9 |
*= | x *= 9 | This is same as x = x * 9 |
/= | x /= 9 | This is same as x = x / 9 |
%= | x %= 9 | This is same as x = x % 9 |
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Say I set int A = int B. When I change A after, it will not change the value of B. But when I set a SomeClass A = SomeClass B, and I change A's contents (like a.cost), it changes B.cost as well. Can someone explain this to me?
I thought Java is assigned by value, not reference?
Yes, it does - but the value of A is a reference, not a copy of the object itself.
I like to give the following analogy...
Suppose two people both have my address: that's like two variables of type House in Java. Now one of them comes and paints my door red. The second person will still see the red door if they visit:
Basically, remember a few rules and things will become clear:
What does "assigned by value" mean? Are you maybe confusing it with "pass by value/reference"?
At any rate, if you handle a class instance in Java, you are actually handling a reference to that class (much like a pointer in C/C++). Your assignment only copies the reference, so both A and B refer to the same instance, i.e. the data is shared, hence the result.
A is a reference to the object. So if you change the object internal state , it will be reflected to every other variable pointing to it.
If you re-assign A , then B will not change:
(Java is pass by value. Check this article about it.)
In Java, your variables can be split into two categories: Objects, and everything else (int, long, byte, etc).
A primitive type (int, long, etc), holds whatever value you assign it. An object variable, by contrast, holds a reference to an object somewhere. So if you assign one object variable to another, you have copied the reference, both A and B point to the same object.
NOTE: Strings in Java are actually objects, not primitives, which beginners often assume.
Hope this helps
In java when you assign Object to Object its assign by reference. Int is non an Object in java so when you assign int to int its assign by value.
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The ClassCastException occurs when Java attempts to cast an object of one type to another, incompatible type. One common occurrence is the exception message: java.lang.ClassCastException: java.math.BigInteger cannot be cast to java.lang.Integer . This article explores why this exception happens and ways to prevent and fix it.
In Java, a ClassCastException arises when you attempt to cast an object to a type that it cannot be cast to. In the case of BigInteger and Integer , both represent numbers, but they belong to different classes and cannot be cast directly.
Because BigInteger can hold larger values than Integer , Java does not allow automatic casting between the two. Forcing such a cast causes a ClassCastException .
Consider the following scenario where data is fetched from a database or an external source that stores numeric values as BigInteger . Attempting to cast this to an Integer will throw the exception:
To avoid this issue, we need to convert BigInteger to Integer properly rather than using direct casting.
The simplest way to convert a BigInteger to an Integer is by calling the intValue() method on the BigInteger object. This converts the BigInteger to a primitive int , and it can be boxed to an Integer .
In this code snippet, BigInteger.intValue() safely converts the value to int . However, if the value exceeds the range of an int , it will result in data loss (the most significant bits are truncated).
If we are dealing with large numbers, it’s important to check whether the BigInteger can fit into an Integer without data loss.
This example demonstrates a range check to ensure the BigInteger can safely be converted to an int . The code initializes a BigInteger object named bigIntValue with the value "2147483648" . This value is much larger than what a Java Integer can represent, as the Integer type has a maximum capacity far smaller than the BigInteger object in this case.
To ensure the value can safely be converted, the code checks if the BigInteger falls within the range of an Integer . The maximum value an Integer can hold is 2,147,483,647 ( Integer.MAX_VALUE ), and the minimum is -2,147,483,648 ( Integer.MIN_VALUE ). The BigInteger.compareTo() method is used to compare bigIntValue against these limits. Since 2147483648 is greater than 2147483647 , the first comparison ( bigIntValue.compareTo(BigInteger.valueOf(Integer.MAX_VALUE)) <= 0 ) returns false .
Expected Output from running the code above is:
Let’s consider the scenario where the BigInteger value passed is within the range of a Java Integer , i.e., less than 2147483647 .
In this case, since 123,456,789 is less than 2,147,483,647 , the comparison bigIntValue.compareTo(BigInteger.valueOf(Integer.MAX_VALUE)) <= 0 evaluates to true . Additionally, because 123,456,789 is greater than -2,147,483,648 , the second comparison also returns true . With both conditions met, the code safely converts the BigInteger to an int using the intValue() method. This conversion is successful as the value is within the valid range for an Integer .
Expected Output: The converted value, 123,456,789 , is printed as an Integer . There is no data loss or overflow because the value lies within the limits of the Integer type in Java.
In this article, we explored how to safely convert a BigInteger to an Integer in Java, particularly focusing on checking the value range to avoid ClassCastException . By verifying that the BigInteger value is within the valid limits of the Integer type, we can confidently perform conversions without the risk of data loss or overflow. This practice enhances the robustness of our Java applications and helps ensure that data remains accurate during numeric operations.
This was an example of Java ClassCast Exception when converting BigInteger to Integer.
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Java methods, java classes, java file handling, java how to's, java reference, java examples, java inheritance, java inheritance (subclass and superclass).
In Java, it is possible to inherit attributes and methods from one class to another. We group the "inheritance concept" into two categories:
To inherit from a class, use the extends keyword.
In the example below, the Car class (subclass) inherits the attributes and methods from the Vehicle class (superclass):
Try it Yourself »
Did you notice the protected modifier in Vehicle?
We set the brand attribute in Vehicle to a protected access modifier . If it was set to private , the Car class would not be able to access it.
- It is useful for code reusability: reuse attributes and methods of an existing class when you create a new class.
Tip: Also take a look at the next chapter, Polymorphism , which uses inherited methods to perform different tasks.
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If you don't want other classes to inherit from a class, use the final keyword:
If you try to access a final class, Java will generate an error:
The output will be something like this:
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Sealed classes and interfaces restrict which other classes or interfaces may extend or implement them.
For background information about sealed classes and interfaces, see JEP 409 .
One of the primary purposes of inheritance is code reuse: When you want to create a new class and there is already a class that includes some of the code that you want, you can derive your new class from the existing class. In doing this, you can reuse the fields and methods of the existing class without having to write (and debug) them yourself.
However, what if you want to model the various possibilities that exist in a domain by defining its entities and determining how these entities should relate to each other? For example, you're working on a graphics library. You want to determine how your library should handle common geometric primitives like circles and squares. You've created a Shape class that these geometric primitives can extend. However, you're not interested in allowing any arbitrary class to extend Shape ; you don't want clients of your library declaring any further primitives. By sealing a class, you can specify which classes are permitted to extend it and prevent any other arbitrary class from doing so.
Declaring Sealed Classes
To seal a class, add the sealed modifier to its declaration. Then, after any extends and implements clauses, add the permits clause. This clause specifies the classes that may extend the sealed class.
For example, the following declaration of Shape specifies three permitted subclasses, Circle , Square , and Rectangle :
Figure 6-1 Shape.java
Define the following three permitted subclasses, Circle , Square , and Rectangle , in the same module or in the same package as the sealed class:
Figure 6-2 Circle.java
Figure 6-3 Square.java
Square is a non-sealed class . This type of class is explained in Constraints on Permitted Subclasses .
Figure 6-4 Rectangle.java
Rectangle has a further subclass, FilledRectangle :
Figure 6-5 FilledRectangle.java
Alternatively, you can define permitted subclasses in the same file as the sealed class. If you do so, then you can omit the permits clause:
Constraints on Permitted Subclasses
Permitted subclasses have the following constraints:
They must be accessible by the sealed class at compile time.
For example, to compile Shape.java , the compiler must be able to access all of the permitted classes of Shape : Circle.java , Square.java , and Rectangle.java . In addition, because Rectangle is a sealed class, the compiler also needs access to FilledRectangle.java .
They must directly extend the sealed class.
They must have exactly one of the following modifiers to describe how it continues the sealing initiated by its superclass:
final : Cannot be extended further
sealed : Can only be extended by its permitted subclasses
non-sealed : Can be extended by unknown subclasses; a sealed class cannot prevent its permitted subclasses from doing this
For example, the permitted subclasses of Shape demonstrate each of these three modifiers: Circle is final while Rectangle is sealed and Square is non-sealed .
They must be in the same module as the sealed class (if the sealed class is in a named module) or in the same package (if the sealed class is in the unnamed module, as in the Shape.java example).
For example, in the following declaration of com.example.graphics.Shape , its permitted subclasses are all in different packages. This example will compile only if Shape and all of its permitted subclasses are in the same named module.
Declaring Sealed Interfaces
Like sealed classes, to seal an interface, add the sealed modifier to its declaration. Then, after any extends clause, add the permits clause, which specifies the classes that can implement the sealed interface and the interfaces that can extend the sealed interface.
The following example declares a sealed interface named Expr . Only the classes ConstantExpr , PlusExpr , TimesExpr , and NegExpr may implement it:
Record Classes as Permitted Subclasses
You can name a record class in the permits clause of a sealed class or interface. See Record Classes for more information.
Record classes are implicitly final , so you can implement the previous example with record classes instead of ordinary classes:
Narrowing Reference Conversion and Disjoint Types
Narrowing reference conversion is one of the conversions used in type checking cast expressions. It enables an expression of a reference type S to be treated as an expression of a different reference type T , where S is not a subtype of T . A narrowing reference conversion may require a test at run time to validate that a value of type S is a legitimate value of type T . However, there are restrictions that prohibit conversion between certain pairs of types when it can be statically proven that no value can be of both types.
Consider the following example:
The cast expression Polygon p = (Polygon) r is allowed because it's possible that the Rectangle value r could be of type Polygon ; Rectangle is a subtype of Polygon . However, consider this example:
Even though the class Triangle and the interface Polygon are unrelated, the cast expression Polygon p = (Polygon) t is also allowed because at run time these types could be related. A developer could declare the following class:
However, there are cases where the compiler can deduce that there are no values (other than the null reference) shared between two types; these types are considered disjoint . For example:
Because the class UtahTeapot is final , it's impossible for a class to be a descendant of both Polygon and UtahTeapot . Therefore, Polygon and UtahTeapot are disjoint, and the cast statement Polygon p = (Polygon) u isn't allowed.
The compiler has been enhanced to navigate any sealed hierarchy to check if your cast statements are allowed. For example:
The first cast statement UtahTeapot u = (UtahTeapot) s isn't allowed; a Shape can only be a Polygon because Shape is sealed . However, as Polygon is non-sealed , it can be extended. However, no potential subtype of Polygon can extend UtahTeapot as UtahTeapot is final . Therefore, it's impossible for a Shape to be a UtahTeapot .
In contrast, the second cast statement Ring r = (Ring) s is allowed; it's possible for a Shape to be a Ring because Ring is not a final class.
APIs Related to Sealed Classes and Interfaces
The class java.lang.Class has two new methods related to sealed classes and interfaces:
In this article, we explore the distinctive features of C# generics and how they enhance programming efficiency. We compare generics with non-generic types, focusing on benefits like type safety, code reusability, and performance optimization.
Generics in programming refer to a feature that allows a coder to write type-safe, flexible, and reusable code that works with different data types without specifying a concrete data type while coding. It lets you use a placeholder i.e. a “generic type”, which allows a coder to create classes, methods, and data structures that operate on various data types. The popular object-oriented programming languages i.e. “Java” and “C#” support generics, but both handle it in a unique way.
Generics allows us to write Classes, methods, and interfaces that can work with any data type without losing type safety. Because of this, we don’t require rewriting code for each type; we can write it, and it will work on each type.
Let’s see an example of creating a generic list.
In Java, after compilation, generic type information is removed. This makes Java generics compatible with older versions but limits what you can do with them at runtime, so we say that Java uses type erasure. Where C# generics are reified, that means the type information is kept during both compile-time and runtime. It makes C# more flexible and runtime safety.
Let's understand this with examples,
As type information is retained at runtime in C#, we can inspect the generic type using reflection.
In Java we can’t use primitive type in generics, we use their wrapper classes like ‘Integer’ for “int” but C# supports the primitive classes directly in generics, which makes code simpler and more efficient. Let’s see.
C#’s ability to work with primitive types directly makes it faster and more convenient for developers.
Both languages allow you to make generic types flexible with inheritance, but they handle it differently: Java uses wildcards(?) for both covariance and contravariant, which confuses developers sometimes, whereas C# uses the “out” keyword for covariant types and “in” for contravariant types. This is generally easier to understand. Let’s see
C#’s out and in keywords make it clear whether a type is covariant or contravariant, reducing confusion.
Contravariance: we can pass an Animal to the method.
Feature | Java | C# |
Basic Constraints | extends keyword for subclasses or interfaces | where T: base class for subclassing |
Constructor Constraint | Not available | where T : new() ensures a parameterless constructor |
Reference Type Constraint | Not available | where T: class ensures the type is a reference type |
Value Type Constraint | Not available | where T: struct ensures the type is a value type |
Interface Constraint | Can implement interfaces | Can implement interfaces (where T: IInterface) |
Type Safety | Limited by runtime type erasure | Full-type information is retained at runtime |
Generics in both C# and Java allow for flexible, reusable code, but C# generics stand out due to their ability to handle primitive types, runtime type retention, and more powerful constraints. C#’s support for covariance and contravariance is also easier to understand compared to Java’s wildcard system. Understanding these differences can help you make better decisions when writing or transitioning between C# and Java code. C# generics offer more flexibility and performance benefits in many cases, especially when you need runtime type checks, work with primitive types, or require more control over type constraints.
Programming C# for Beginners
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1. how to do java projects for beginners.
To do Java projects you need to know the fundamentals of Java programming. Then you need to select the desired Java project you want to work on. Plan and execute the code to finish the project. Some beginner-level Java projects include: Reversing a String Number Guessing Game Creating a Calculator Simple Banking Application Basic Android Application
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Java provides many advantages and uses, some of which are: Platform-independent Robust and secure Object-oriented Popular & in-demand Vast ecosystem
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Note: The compound assignment operator in Java performs implicit type casting. Let's consider a scenario where x is an int variable with a value of 5. int x = 5; If you want to add the double value 4.5 to the integer variable x and print its value, there are two methods to achieve this: Method 1: x = x + 4.5. Method 2: x += 4.5.
A class in Java is a set of objects which shares common characteristics/ behavior and common properties/ attributes. It is a user-defined blueprint or prototype from which objects are created. For example, Student is a class while a particular student named Ravi is an object. Properties of Java Classes. Class is not a real-world entity.
Simple Assignment Operator (=) To assign a value to a variable, use the basic assignment operator (=). It is the most fundamental assignment operator in Java. It assigns the value on the right side of the operator to the variable on the left side. In the above example, the variable x is assigned the value 10.
Lecture presentation on programming in Java. Topics include: object oriented programming, defining classes, using classes, constructors, methods, accessing fields, primitives versus references, references versus values, and static types and methods. ... assignment Programming Assignments. Download Course.
This beginner Java tutorial describes fundamentals of programming in the Java programming language ... You saw this operator in the Bicycle class; it assigns the value on its right to the operand on its left: ... You can also combine the arithmetic operators with the simple assignment operator to create compound assignments. For example, x+=1; ...
Java Class and Objects. Java is an object-oriented programming language. The core concept of the object-oriented approach is to break complex problems into smaller objects. An object is any entity that has a state and behavior. For example, a bicycle is an object. It has. States: idle, first gear, etc. Behaviors: braking, accelerating, etc.
Java provides a class with name Class in java.lang package. Instances of the class Class represent classes and interfaces in a running Java application. The primitive Java types (boolean, byte, char, short, int, long, float, and double), and the keyword void are also represented as Class objects. It has no public constructor. Class objects are cons
Lesson: Classes and Objects. With the knowledge you now have of the basics of the Java programming language, you can learn to write your own classes. In this lesson, you will find information about defining your own classes, including declaring member variables, methods, and constructors. You will learn to use your classes to create objects ...
Classes. The introduction to object-oriented concepts in the lesson titled Object-oriented Programming Concepts used a bicycle class as an example, with racing bikes, mountain bikes, and tandem bikes as subclasses. Here is sample code for a possible implementation of a Bicycle class, to give you an overview of a class declaration.
Compound Assignment Operators. Sometime we need to modify the same variable value and reassigned it to a same reference variable. Java allows you to combine assignment and addition operators using a shorthand operator. For example, the preceding statement can be written as: i +=8; //This is same as i = i+8; The += is called the addition ...
Java Classes/Objects. Java is an object-oriented programming language. Everything in Java is associated with classes and objects, along with its attributes and methods. For example: in real life, a car is an object. The car has attributes, such as weight and color, and methods, such as drive and brake. A Class is like an object constructor, or ...
OOP is faster and easier to execute. OOP provides a clear structure for the programs. OOP helps to keep the Java code DRY "Don't Repeat Yourself", and makes the code easier to maintain, modify and debug. OOP makes it possible to create full reusable applications with less code and shorter development time. Tip: The "Don't Repeat Yourself" (DRY ...
Hi! Today we will talk about classes in Java. You could say that classes form the cornerstone of Java programming. When you become a programmer, nearly your entire job will be writing your own classes that have various functions. Let's see what that means and how it works. :) As you know, Java is an object-oriented programming language.
The Java Assignment operators are used to assign the values to the declared variables. The equals ( = ) operator is the most commonly used Java assignment operator. For example: int i = 25; The table below displays all the assignment operators in the Java programming language. Operators.
For example, + is an operator used for addition, while * is also an operator used for multiplication. Operators in Java can be classified into 5 types: Arithmetic Operators. Assignment Operators. Relational Operators. Logical Operators. Unary Operators. Bitwise Operators. 1.
I am new to Java and I have some questions in mind regarding object assignment. For instance, Test t1 = new Test(); Test t2 = t1; t1.i=1; Assuming variable i is defined inside Test class, am I right to assume both t1 and t2 point to the same object where the modification t1.i=1 affects both t1 and t2?Actually I tested it out and seems like I was right.
Programming assignments. Creative programming assignments that we have used at Princeton. You can explore these resources via the sidebar at left. Introduction to Programming in Java. Our textbook Introduction to Programming in Java [ Amazon · Pearson · InformIT] is an interdisciplinary approach to the traditional CS1 curriculum with Java. We ...
Classes: A class is a user-defined blueprint or prototype from which objects are created. It represents the set of properties or methods that are common to all objects of one type. Classes are required in OOPs because: It provides the template for creating objects, which can bind code into data. It has definitions of methods and data.
In the above example, we have created a constructor named Main(). Inside the constructor, we are initializing the value of the name variable. Notice the statement creating an object of the Main class. Main obj = new Main(); Here, when the object is created, the Main() constructor is called. And the value of the name variable is initialized.
Assignment (and argument passing) always copies the value, whether that value is a reference or a primitive value; Share. Follow ... At any rate, if you handle a class instance in Java, you are actually handling a reference to that class (much like a pointer in C/C++). Your assignment only copies the reference, so both A and B refer to the same ...
The ClassCastException occurs when Java attempts to cast an object of one type to another, incompatible type. One common occurrence is the exception message: java.lang.ClassCastException: java.math.BigInteger cannot be cast to java.lang.Integer. This article explores why this exception happens and ways to prevent and fix it. 1.
Java Inheritance (Subclass and Superclass) In Java, it is possible to inherit attributes and methods from one class to another. We group the "inheritance concept" into two categories: subclass (child) - the class that inherits from another class. superclass (parent) - the class being inherited from. To inherit from a class, use the extends keyword.
Declaring Sealed Classes. To seal a class, add the sealed modifier to its declaration. Then, after any extends and implements clauses, add the permits clause. This clause specifies the classes that may extend the sealed class. For example, the following declaration of Shape specifies three permitted subclasses, Circle, Square, and Rectangle:
Generic: C# vs. Java. In Java, after compilation, generic type information is removed. This makes Java generics compatible with older versions but limits what you can do with them at runtime, so we say that Java uses type erasure. Where C# generics are reified, that means the type information is kept during both compile-time and runtime.
Java is also an object-oriented language, which means that it organizes data and behaviour into reusable units called classes and objects. Java is known for its portability, performance, security, and robust. 2 min read. Java Threading Programs - Basic to Advanced.