discourse analysis research title examples

21 Great Examples of Discourse Analysis

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Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Discourse analysis is an approach to the study of language that demonstrates how language shapes reality. It usually takes the form of a textual or content analysis .

Discourse is understood as a way of perceiving, framing, and viewing the world.

For example:

• A dominant discourse of gender often positions women as gentle and men as active heroes.
• A dominant discourse of race often positions whiteness as the norm and colored bodies as ‘others’ (see: social construction of race )

Through discourse analysis, scholars look at texts and examine how those texts shape discourse.

In other words, it involves the examination of how the ‘ways of speaking about things’ normalizes and privileges some frames of thinking about things while marginalizing others.

As a simple example, if movies consistently frame the ideal female as passive, silent, and submissive, then society comes to think that this is how women should behave and makes us think that this is normal , so women who don’t fit this mold are abnormal .

Instead of seeing this as just the way things are, discourse analysts know that norms are produced in language and are not necessarily as natural as we may have assumed.

Examples of Discourse Analysis

1. language choice in policy texts.

A study of policy texts can reveal ideological frameworks and viewpoints of the writers of the policy. These sorts of studies often demonstrate how policy texts often categorize people in ways that construct social hierarchies and restrict people’s agency .

Examples include:

2. Newspaper Bias

Conducting a critical discourse analysis of newspapers involves gathering together a quorum of newspaper articles based on a pre-defined range and scope (e.g. newspapers from a particular set of publishers within a set date range).

Then, the researcher conducts a close examination of the texts to examine how they frame subjects (i.e. people, groups of people, etc.) from a particular ideological, political, or cultural perspective.

3. Language in Interviews

Discourse analysis can also be utilized to analyze interview transcripts. While coding methods to identify themes are the most common methods for analyzing interviews, discourse analysis is a valuable approach when looking at power relations and the framing of subjects through speech.

4. Television Analysis

Discourse analysis is commonly used to explore ideologies and framing devices in television shows and advertisements.

Due to the fact advertising is not just textual but rather multimodal , scholars often mix a discourse analytic methodology (i.e. exploring how television constructs dominant ways of thinking) with semiotic methods (i.e. exploration of how color, movement, font choice, and so on create meaning).

I did this, for example, in my PhD (listed below).

5. Film Critique

Scholars can explore discourse in film in a very similar way to how they study discourse in television shows. This can include the framing of sexuality gender, race, nationalism, and social class in films.

A common example is the study of Disney films and how they construct idealized feminine and masculine identities that children should aspire toward.

6. Analysis of Political Speech

Political speeches have also been subject to a significant amount of discourse analysis. These studies generally explore how influential politicians indicate a shift in policy and frame those policy shifts in the context of underlying ideological assumptions.

9. Examining Marketing Texts

Advertising is more present than ever in the context of neoliberal capitalism. As a result, it has an outsized role in shaping public discourse. Critical discourse analyses of advertising texts tend to explore how advertisements, and the capitalist context that underpins their proliferation, normalize gendered, racialized, and class-based discourses.

11. Analyzing Lesson Plans

As written texts, lesson plans can be analyzed for how they construct discourses around education as well as student and teacher identities. These texts tend to examine how teachers and governing bodies in education prioritize certain ideologies around what and how to learn. These texts can enter into discussions around the ‘history wars’ (what and whose history should be taught) as well as ideological approaches to religious and language learning.

12. Looking at Graffiti

One of my favorite creative uses of discourse analysis is in the study of graffiti. By looking at graffiti, researchers can identify how youth countercultures and counter discourses are spread through subversive means. These counterdiscourses offer ruptures where dominant discourses can be unsettled and displaced.

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The Origins of Discourse Analysis

1. foucault.

French philosopher Michel Foucault is a central thinker who shaped discourse analysis. His work in studies like Madness and Civilization and The History of Sexuality demonstrate how our ideas about insanity and sexuality have been shaped through language.

The ways the church speaks about sex, for example, shapes people’s thoughts and feelings about it.

The church didn’t simply make sex a silent taboo. Rather, it actively worked to teach people that desire was a thing of evil, forcing them to suppress their desires.

Over time, society at large developed a suppressed normative approach to the concept of sex that is not necessarily normal except for the fact that the church reiterates that this is the only acceptable way of thinking about the topic.

Similarly, in Madness and Civilization , a discourse around insanity was examined. Medical discourse pathologized behaviors that were ‘abnormal’ as signs of insanity. Were the dominant medical discourse to change, it’s possible that abnormal people would no longer be seen as insane.

One clear example of this is homosexuality. Up until the 1990s, being gay was seen in medical discourse as an illness. Today, most of Western society sees that this way of looking at homosexuality was extremely damaging and exclusionary, and yet at the time, because it was the dominant discourse, people didn’t question it.

2. Norman Fairclough

Fairclough (2013), inspired by Foucault, created some key methodological frameworks for conducting discourse analysis.

Fairclough was one of the first scholars to articulate some frameworks around exploring ‘text as discourse’ and provided key tools for scholars to conduct analyses of newspaper and policy texts.

Today, most methodology chapters in dissertations that use discourse analysis will have extensive discussions of Fairclough’s methods.

Discourse analysis is a popular primary research method in media studies, cultural studies, education studies, and communication studies. It helps scholars to show how texts and language have the power to shape people’s perceptions of reality and, over time, shift dominant ways of framing thought. It also helps us to see how power flows thought texts, creating ‘in-groups’ and ‘out-groups’ in society.

Key examples of discourse analysis include the study of television, film, newspaper, advertising, political speeches, and interviews.

Al Kharusi, R. (2017). Ideologies of Arab media and politics: a CDA of Al Jazeera debates on the Yemeni revolution. PhD Dissertation: University of Hertfordshire.

Alaazi, D. A., Ahola, A. N., Okeke-Ihejirika, P., Yohani, S., Vallianatos, H., & Salami, B. (2021). Immigrants and the Western media: a CDA of newspaper framings of African immigrant parenting in Canada. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies , 47 (19), 4478-4496. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1798746

Al-Khawaldeh, N. N., Khawaldeh, I., Bani-Khair, B., & Al-Khawaldeh, A. (2017). An exploration of graffiti on university’s walls: A corpus-based discourse analysis study. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics , 7 (1), 29-42. Doi: https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v7i1.6856

Alsaraireh, M. Y., Singh, M. K. S., & Hajimia, H. (2020). Critical DA of gender representation of male and female characters in the animation movie, Frozen. Linguistica Antverpiensia , 104-121.

Baig, F. Z., Khan, K., & Aslam, M. J. (2021). Child Rearing and Gender Socialisation: A Feminist CDA of Kids’ Popular Fictional Movies. Journal of Educational Research and Social Sciences Review (JERSSR) , 1 (3), 36-46.

Barker, M. E. (2021). Exploring Canadian Integration through CDA of English Language Lesson Plans for Immigrant Learners. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics/Revue canadienne de linguistique appliquée , 24 (1), 75-91. Doi: https://doi.org/10.37213/cjal.2021.28959

Coleman, B. (2017). An Ideological Unveiling: Using Critical Narrative and Discourse Analysis to Examine Discursive White Teacher Identity. AERA Online Paper Repository .

Drew, C. (2013). Soak up the goodness: Discourses of Australian childhoods on television advertisements, 2006-2012. PhD Dissertation: Australian Catholic University. Doi: https://doi.org/10.4226/66/5a9780223babd

Fairclough, N. (2013). Critical discourse analysis: The critical study of language . London: Routledge.

Foucault, M. (1990). The history of sexuality: An introduction . London: Vintage.

Foucault, M. (2003). Madness and civilization . New York: Routledge.

Hahn, A. D. (2018). Uncovering the ideologies of internationalization in lesson plans through CDA. The New English Teacher , 12 (1), 121-121.

Isti’anah, A. (2018). Rohingya in media: CDA of Myanmar and Bangladesh newspaper headlines. Language in the Online and Offline World , 6 , 18-23. Doi: http://repository.usd.ac.id/id/eprint/25962

Khan, M. H., Adnan, H. M., Kaur, S., Qazalbash, F., & Ismail, I. N. (2020). A CDA of anti-Muslim rhetoric in Donald Trump’s historic 2016 AIPAC policy speech. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs , 40 (4), 543-558. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/13602004.2020.1828507

Louise Cooper, K., Luck, L., Chang, E., & Dixon, K. (2021). What is the practice of spiritual care? A CDA of registered nurses’ understanding of spirituality. Nursing Inquiry , 28 (2), e12385. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/nin.12385

Mohammadi, D., Momeni, S., & Labafi, S. (2021). Representation of Iranians family’s life style in TV advertising (Case study: food ads). Religion & Communication , 27 (58), 333-379.

Munro, M. (2018) House price inflation in the news: a CDA of newspaper coverage in the UK. Housing Studies, 33(7), pp. 1085-1105. doi: 10.1080/02673037.2017.1421911

Ravn, I. M., Frederiksen, K., & Beedholm, K. (2016). The chronic responsibility: a CDA of Danish chronic care policies. Qualitative Health Research , 26 (4), 545-554. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1049732315570133

Sengul, K. (2019). Critical discourse analysis in political communication research: a case study of right-wing populist discourse in Australia. Communication Research and Practice , 5 (4), 376-392. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/22041451.2019.1695082

Serafis, D., Kitis, E. D., & Archakis, A. (2018). Graffiti slogans and the construction of collective identity: evidence from the anti-austerity protests in Greece. Text & Talk , 38 (6), 775-797. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1515/text-2018-0023

Suphaborwornrat, W., & Punkasirikul, P. (2022). A Multimodal CDA of Online Soft Drink Advertisements. LEARN Journal: Language Education and Acquisition Research Network , 15 (1), 627-653.

Symes, C., & Drew, C. (2017). Education on the rails: a textual ethnography of university advertising in mobile contexts. Critical Studies in Education , 58 (2), 205-223. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/17508487.2016.1252783

Thomas, S. (2005). The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis. Critical Studies in Education , 46 (2), 25-44. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/17508480509556423

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single
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Home » Discourse Analysis – Methods, Types and Examples

Discourse Analysis – Methods, Types and Examples

Table of Contents

Discourse analysis is a qualitative research method used to analyze language in texts, conversations, or social contexts to understand meaning, power dynamics, and social constructs. This approach explores how language shapes and reflects social realities, making it an invaluable tool for studies in linguistics, sociology, communication, and cultural studies. This guide covers discourse analysis methods, types, and practical examples.

Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis examines the structure, function, and context of language in communication. It focuses on how words, phrases, and interactions contribute to constructing meaning and how these linguistic choices relate to broader social, cultural, or political frameworks. This type of analysis can be applied to both spoken and written forms of communication, including interviews, conversations, social media posts, advertisements, and policy documents.

Key Objectives of Discourse Analysis :

• Identify Patterns : Recognize recurring themes, language structures, or rhetorical strategies.
• Understand Context : Analyze the social, political, or cultural context influencing language use.
• Explore Power Dynamics : Investigate how language reflects or enforces power relations.

Methods of Discourse Analysis

• Content analysis involves categorizing words, phrases, or themes within the text to identify patterns or dominant ideas. This method is often used to quantify specific elements, such as the frequency of certain words or themes.
• Example : Analyzing political speeches to determine the most frequently used terms related to “freedom” or “security.”
• CDA examines language to uncover underlying power dynamics, ideologies, and social inequalities. It seeks to understand how language contributes to maintaining or challenging societal structures.
• Example : Studying news coverage of marginalized groups to identify biases in language that reinforce stereotypes or social hierarchies.
• Conversation analysis focuses on the structure of verbal interactions, including turn-taking, pauses, and conversational markers. CA is used to study the unspoken rules governing everyday conversations.
• Example : Analyzing doctor-patient interactions to understand how medical professionals convey authority or empathy.
• Narrative analysis explores how stories and narratives are constructed to convey identity, experience, or moral messages. This approach examines the sequence, structure, and purpose of storytelling.
• Example : Analyzing patient narratives in healthcare to understand how individuals describe their experiences with illness and recovery.
• Semiotic analysis investigates signs, symbols, and meanings within texts, understanding how visual or linguistic symbols communicate cultural or social messages.
• Example : Analyzing an advertisement to determine how images and words convey ideas about beauty, success, or happiness.

Types of Discourse Analysis

1. descriptive discourse analysis.

Descriptive discourse analysis focuses on describing language use without delving deeply into broader social implications. It may involve examining word choice, sentence structure, or thematic elements within a text.

• Example : Analyzing the language in customer reviews to understand common phrases or sentiments.

2. Interpretive Discourse Analysis

Interpretive discourse analysis seeks to understand the meaning of language within a specific social or cultural context. It goes beyond surface-level descriptions, exploring how language reflects beliefs, attitudes, or experiences.

• Example : Analyzing interviews with teachers to understand how they talk about student motivation and learning.

3. Social Constructivist Discourse Analysis

This type of discourse analysis examines how language constructs social realities, beliefs, or identities. Social constructivist approaches explore how discourse shapes what is considered “normal” or “acceptable” in society.

• Example : Studying political campaign rhetoric to understand how candidates frame concepts like “leadership” or “patriotism.”

4. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

Critical discourse analysis examines language to reveal hidden power structures, social inequalities, and ideologies. CDA aims to expose biases or assumptions in language that may reinforce dominant social groups.

• Example : Analyzing news articles about immigration to reveal subtle biases or stereotypes that reinforce negative perceptions of immigrants.

5. Historical Discourse Analysis

Historical discourse analysis investigates how language and discourse have evolved over time. It often involves comparing texts from different historical periods to see how societal attitudes or values have changed.

• Example : Analyzing speeches on women’s rights from the 19th and 21st centuries to trace shifts in discourse on gender equality.

Examples of Discourse Analysis in Research

• Objective : To study how political ideologies are expressed on social media.
• Method : Critical discourse analysis of Twitter posts by politicians.
• Findings : Identifying language patterns that reinforce group identities, promote specific ideologies, or frame political opponents.
• Objective : To analyze media language surrounding a public health crisis.
• Method : Content analysis of news articles about COVID-19.
• Findings : Observing shifts in language from “pandemic” to “endemic” as public perception and understanding of the virus changed over time.
• Objective : To understand how teachers discuss discipline and authority.
• Method : Conversation analysis of interviews with teachers.
• Findings : Revealing language patterns that indicate different approaches to authority and student interaction.
• Objective : To study how advertisements construct consumer identities.
• Method : Semiotic analysis of fashion magazine ads.
• Findings : Observing how brands use images, colors, and language to create aspirational identities and lifestyles for consumers.

Writing Guide for Discourse Analysis

When writing about discourse analysis, it’s essential to clearly explain your methods, provide examples, and interpret findings within a social or cultural context. Here is a step-by-step guide for structuring a discourse analysis paper.

Step 1: Introduction

Introduce the topic and explain why discourse analysis is appropriate for the study. Present your research question and briefly describe the discourse (texts, conversations, or media) being analyzed.

Example : “This study examines the discourse surrounding remote work in corporate blogs, focusing on language that frames productivity, flexibility, and employee well-being.”

Step 2: Methodology

Describe the method used to conduct the discourse analysis. Specify whether you used critical discourse analysis, content analysis, conversation analysis, etc. Include details on data sources, sample selection, and analytic procedures.

Example : “The analysis includes 50 blog articles from major corporate websites, using content analysis to identify common themes and rhetorical strategies.”

Step 3: Data Analysis and Findings

Present the findings from your analysis. Highlight specific language patterns, themes, or structures you identified and provide examples from the discourse. Discuss the implications of these findings and relate them to the research question.

Example : “The term ‘work-life balance’ appeared in 70% of articles, often framed as a benefit of remote work. However, this framing sometimes conflicted with language emphasizing productivity, indicating a tension between flexibility and productivity expectations.”

Step 4: Discussion

Interpret the findings and explore their broader social, cultural, or political significance. Discuss how the discourse reflects or shapes social norms, beliefs, or identities. Consider whether the discourse maintains, challenges, or reshapes power dynamics.

Example : “The discourse on remote work both supports employee autonomy and subtly enforces productivity, suggesting that while companies endorse flexibility, they still prioritize high performance.”

Step 5: Conclusion

Summarize the main findings and implications of the study. Suggest directions for future research or ways in which the discourse may evolve over time.

Example : “This study highlights how corporate discourse on remote work constructs a dual narrative of flexibility and productivity, reflecting shifting expectations in modern workplaces. Future studies could explore how this discourse adapts to long-term changes in work culture.”

Tips for Effective Discourse Analysis

• Define the Scope : Limit your analysis to specific texts, contexts, or themes to maintain focus.
• Be Objective : Avoid imposing personal interpretations; let the language and patterns in the data guide your analysis.
• Use Examples : Provide direct quotes or examples from your data to support your interpretations.
• Acknowledge Limitations : Recognize any limitations, such as sample size or context, that might affect the analysis.
• Relate to Broader Context : Discuss how the discourse reflects larger social, political, or cultural frameworks.

Discourse analysis offers a unique lens for understanding how language shapes and reflects social reality. By examining patterns, power dynamics, and cultural contexts, researchers can uncover the deeper meanings and implications of language in society. Whether through critical analysis, content analysis, or semiotic interpretation, discourse analysis provides invaluable insights into how language impacts our perceptions, behaviors, and social norms.

• Fairclough, N. (2013). Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language . Routledge.
• Gee, J. P. (2014). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method . Routledge.
• Van Dijk, T. A. (2011). Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introduction . Sage Publications.
• Wodak, R., & Meyer, M. (2015). Methods of Critical Discourse Studies . Sage Publications.
• Johnstone, B. (2018). Discourse Analysis . Wiley-Blackwell.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Discourse analysis: Step-by-step guide with examples

What is a discourse analysis, the application of discourse analysis in the academic thesis, discourse analysis with maxqda.

• Step 1: Importing data
• Step 2: Coding data
• Step 3: Creating Codebook
• Step 4: Visualize data

Literature about MAXQDA

Tuesday, September 19, 2023

MAXQDA supports various methodological approaches, including discourse analysis. This guide will introduce you to the tools of MAXQDA, which are ideal for performing discourse analysis with MAXQDA quickly and easily. MAXQDA is a qualitative data analysis software that helps you import, code, and identify patterns in your discourse.

Discourse analysis is a multidisciplinary method used in the humanities and social sciences to develop a deeper understanding of the interactions between language, society, and culture. It focuses on the study of linguistic expressions, structures, and practices in order to capture social meanings and power dynamics. Both verbal and nonverbal communication are considered. The overarching goal of discourse analysis is to explore how discourses influence the construction of knowledge, identities, and social relations. It enables the study of the role of language and communication in shaping and influencing social reality. Overall, discourse analysis makes a valuable contribution to the study of social phenomena and processes by providing an in-depth understanding of how language and communication are used to create meanings, shape social relationships, and establish social power dynamics. Discourse analysis contributes to critical reflection and knowledge acquisition in various academic disciplines.

A primary motivation for using discourse analysis is the ability to uncover dominant discourses, ideological assumptions, and power structures in texts, media content, or political speeches. Discourse analysis allows researchers to better understand and critically reflect on the role of language and discourse in society. Another important area of application of discourse analysis in dissertations is the study of the relationship between discourses and identity constructions. For example, gender roles, ethnic identities, or sexual orientations can be studied. Discourse analysis can help to understand how identities are negotiated, constructed, and reproduced in specific social contexts. Another area of application in dissertations is the study of discourses in the media. The analysis of media discourses makes it possible to identify, critically expose and reflect on patterns and trends in reporting. This can contribute to a better understanding of the media’s role in constructing and disseminating discourses. In summary, discourse analysis offers a valuable methodological perspective for the study of complex social phenomena in the context of academic work.

Researchers typically follow these steps in discourse analysis: defining the research question, selecting relevant textual data, coding and categorizing the data, analyzing patterns and meanings within the discourse, interpreting the results, and documenting their findings in written form. The specific steps may vary depending on the research question and methodology.

As mentioned earlier, there are clear advantages to using software like MAXQDA to conduct discourse analysis. With MAXQDA, you can segment data, code it, and develop analytical ideas all at the same time. This makes the process more efficient and allows you to refine your theoretical approaches in real time. If you do not have a MAXQDA License yet, download the free 14-day trial to get started:

Download free trial

Step 1 of the discourse analysis with MAXQDA: Importing data

Importing data into MAXQDA is a crucial step in beginning the analysis of qualitative data. MAXQDA provides several options for importing data into the program, allowing you to effectively organize your research materials. You can import different types of data, such as text documents, transcripts, media content, or existing MAXQDA Projects. MAXQDA gives you the flexibility to import both individual files and entire folders of data, which is especially helpful when working with large data sets. The import process is designed to be simple and user-friendly, making it easier for you to work with your data. Another advantage of MAXQDA is that it supports a wide variety of file formats. You can import files in various formats, including TXT, DOC, PDF, MP3, MP4 and many more. This versatility allows you to work with different types of data and incorporate different media into your analysis. Importing your data into MAXQDA makes it structured and accessible for further analysis. Within MAXQDA, you can organize, code, and link your data with other analytical tools. This makes it easier to navigate and access relevant information during the analysis process. Overall, importing data into MAXQDA is an efficient way to manage your qualitative research materials and prepare them for analysis. It serves as a critical first step in launching your project in MAXQDA and taking full advantage of the program’s extensive analytical capabilities.

Importing data into MAXQA plays a crucial role in conducting discourse analysis. With MAXQDA, you can segment your data into documents and annotate them with relevant metadata such as title, author, and date. This allows you to organize your texts during the analysis phase. You can sort, filter, and group your data based on various criteria to access specific texts. In addition, MAXQDA provides the ability to annotate the imported text with notes, comments, or memos. This feature is invaluable for capturing important information, thoughts, or interpretations that arise during analysis. You can document your observations and insights directly in MAXQDA, thus fostering a comprehensive understanding of the discourse being analyzed. In MAXQDA, you can assign meaningful titles to your data and include relevant metadata such as author and date in the document names. This ensures a clear organization of your texts during the analysis phase. You can sort, filter, and group your data according to various criteria to access specific texts. In addition, MAXQDA allows you to annotate the imported texts with comments and notes using memos. This feature is very useful for capturing key information, thoughts, or interpretations that emerge during the analysis. You can document your observations and insights directly in MAXQDA and develop a thorough understanding of the discourse being analyzed. Importing data into MAXQDA is fundamental to conducting a systematic and comprehensive discourse analysis.The structured organization of data in MAXQDA facilitates the effective application of various analysis methods and techniques. You can create codes to identify and analyze important themes, terms, or patterns within the discourse. Importing data into MAXQDA provides a central platform where you can manage, analyze, and interpret your data. This greatly streamlines the entire process of discourse analysis, allowing you to make informed statements about social meanings, power dynamics, and identity constructions within the discourse you are analyzing.

Step 2 of the discourse analysis with MAXQDA: Coding data

Coding data in MAXQDA plays a critical role in the analysis process. Coding involves identifying and marking specific themes, categories, or concepts within the data. This allows researchers to systematically organize and extract relevant information from the data. In MAXQDA, different types of data can be coded, such as text passages, images, videos, or audio files. Codes can be used to associate these data segments with specific content or meanings. Researchers can use codes to identify and mark certain phenomena or themes in the data, allowing for targeted access later. Coding in MAXQDA allows researchers to identify complex relationships and patterns within the data. By linking and combining codes and organizing them hierarchically, researchers can establish relationships between different elements. These connections provide new insights and help understand the relationships within the data. The coded data can be further used in MAXQDA for additional analysis. For example, complex queries or filters can be applied to examine specific aspects of the discourse in detail. By analyzing the coded data, researchers can identify patterns, trends, and significant relationships that lead to valuable insights. MAXQDA provides an intuitive and easy-to-use platform to efficiently perform the coding and analysis process. The program offers several tools and features that allow researchers to customize the coding process and tailor the analysis to their specific needs. Overall, coding data in MAXQDA is a critical step in analyzing and understanding qualitative data.

Coding data in MAXQDA allows researchers to identify and analyze specific discursive elements such as themes, arguments, or language strategies in the texts under study. To code data in MAXQDA, researchers can select relevant text passages and assign them codes that represent specific meanings or categories. These codes can be organized hierarchically to illustrate relationships between different discursive elements. In addition to coding, MAXQDA offers features such as text annotation, the ability to create memos, and options for visual data presentation at later stages. These features facilitate the organization and interpretation of coded data, enabling researchers to gain deep insights into the discourse under study and to visualize their findings. MAXQDA provides a comprehensive and efficient platform for coding and analyzing data in discourse analysis.

Step 3 of the discourse analysis with MAXQDA: Creating Codebook

A Codebook in MAXQDA defines codes for units of meaning within data. It enables structured and consistent coding, improves traceability and reproducibility, increases the efficiency of data analysis, facilitates comparisons and cross-references between codes and data, and provides flexibility and adaptability. In summary, a codebook promotes structured, consistent, and efficient data analysis, improving traceability and identification of relationships and patterns.

A Codebook is also very useful for discourse analysis in MAXQDA. Here are some reasons why:

• Structured coding of discourse features: A Codebook establishes uniform rules and definitions for coding data. This ensures that coding is structured and consistent across researchers and stages of analysis. This increases the reliability of results and facilitates the comparison and integration of data.
• Improved traceability and reproducibility: By clearly defining the codes and their use in the Codebook, the traceability of the coding process is improved. Other researchers can understand and trace the coding, increasing the reproducibility of the analysis. In addition, a Codebook facilitates effective collaboration and sharing of data and analysis among researchers.
• Identification and comparison of discourse patterns: A Codebook allows for the systematic identification and comparison of discourse patterns. This makes it possible to identify connections, patterns, and differences in the data, thus facilitating the interpretation of the results.
• Efficient data analysis: A Codebook provides a structured view of the codes used and their meanings. This allows researchers to work more efficiently by applying the codes quickly and specifically to relevant data. Using a codebook saves time and makes it easier to organize and navigate the coded data.
• Flexibility and adaptability: A Codebook in MAXQDA is flexible and customizable. Researchers can add, modify, or remove codes to meet the needs of their specific research questions. This allows for dynamic and iterative data analysis, where the Codebook can be continually updated and expanded.

In summary, a well-designed codebook in MAXQDA promotes structured, consistent, and efficient data analysis.

Step 4 of the discourse analysis with MAXQDA: Visualize data

MAXQDA offers a wide range of visualization tools to help you present your research data in an engaging and meaningful way. These include not only different types of charts, such as bar or pie charts for visualizing numerical data, but also other innovative visualization tools that help you identify and analyze complex relationships.

Code Matrix Browser

With the Code Matrix Browser , in MAXQDA, you can visually display and analyze the occurrence of codes in your data. This feature is invaluable for identifying similarities, differences, and patterns in discourse. Here are some of the ways the Code Matrix Browser can help you:

• Visualization of codings: The Code Matrix Browser displays a matrix where codes are arranged along the rows and documents along the columns. This visual representation allows you to quickly see which codes were used in which documents. This allows you to identify similarities and differences in the coding, which makes it easier to make connections.
• Pattern recognition: By analyzing codings in the Code Relations Browser, you can identify patterns in discourse. For example, you can observe which codes are particularly prevalent in certain documents. These patterns may indicate important themes, arguments, or language strategies, helping you to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the discourse.
• Comparison: With the Code Matrix Browser, you can compare how often certain codes were assigned in each document and display the corresponding information in the matrix. This allows you to analyze relationships between different elements in the discourse and to make connections between different topics or arguments.

Code Relations Browser

The Code Relations Browser , in MAXQDA allows you to visually display and analyze the connections and dependencies between the codes in your discourse. This feature is extremely valuable for understanding the interactions and hierarchy between codes. Here are some of the ways the Code Relations Browser can help you:

• Visualize code relationships: The Code Relations Browser visually displays the relationships between codes. You can see which codes are linked and how they are related to each other. These relationships can be hierarchical, associative, or several other types. This visual representation helps you better understand the structure and organization of codes within the discourse.
• Analyze interactions: The Code Relations Browser lets you analyze the interactions between codes. You can observe which codes occur frequently or how they influence each other. This can help you identify specific themes, arguments, or concepts in the discourse and examine their interrelationships. Analyzing these interactions can provide a deeper understanding of the discourse and the connections between codes.

The Code Map in MAXQDA visualizes selected codes as a map, showing the similarity of codes based on overlaps in the data material. Each code is represented by a circle, and the distance between the circles indicates their similarity. Larger circles represent more instances of coding with the code. Colors can highlight group membership, and connecting lines indicate overlap between codes, with thicker lines indicating more significant overlap. Visualizing the similarities between codes in the data provides an overview of different discursive elements. Grouping codes into clusters allows for the identification of specific discourse themes or dimensions. The connecting lines also show how codes interact and which codes frequently appear together. This allows for a detailed examination of the relationships between discursive elements, facilitating the interpretation and analysis of the discourse.

Document Map

The Document Map visualizes selected documents like a map. The positioning of the circles on the map is based on the similarity of the code assignments between the documents. Documents with similar code mappings are placed closer together, while those with different code mappings are placed further apart. Variable values from the documents can be used to determine similarity. Optionally, similar documents can be color-coded. Larger circles represent documents with more of the analyzed codes. The Document Map is a useful tool for visually grouping cases and can be used for typing or further investigation of the identified groups. The Document Map can be used in several ways in discourse analysis:

• Discourse group identification: By positioning documents on the map based on their code assignments, similar discourse groups can be identified. Documents with similar code assignments are placed closer together, indicating common discursive features.
• Recognition of discourse patterns: The visual representation of documents and their similarities on the map allows for the detection of patterns in discourse. Clusters of documents with similar codings may indicate common themes, arguments, or language patterns.
• Exploration of discourse dynamics: The use of connecting lines between codes on the map can reveal which codes overlap within documents. Thick connecting lines indicate frequent overlap and may suggest discursive relationships or connections.”
• Typification: The Document Map can serve as a basis for typology in discourse analysis. By grouping documents with similar code assignments, different discourse types can be identified and described”.

Profile Comparison Chart

The Profile Comparison Chart MAXQDA allows you to select multiple documents and compare the use of codes within those documents. This comparison allows you to identify differences or similarities in discourse between the selected documents. Below are some steps for using the Profile Comparison Chart:

• Document selection: Select the documents you want to compare. You can choose single documents or a group of documents. These documents should represent the discourse you want to analyze.
• Code selection: Select the codes you wish to compare in the selected documents. These can be specific themes, concepts or discursive elements that are of interest in the discourse.
• Create the comparison chart: Create the comparison graph in MAXQDA. The graph shows the occurrence of codes in individual paragraphs of the documents.
• Analysis of the chart: Analyze the comparison chart to identify differences or similarities in the discourse of the selected documents. Examine the assignment of codes in the paragraphs of the documents. Different patterns or variations in frequency may indicate differences in discourse, while similar patterns may indicate similarities in discourse.

Document Portrait

The Document Portrait feature in MAXQDA allows you to visually represent important features, themes, or characteristics of a document by visualizing the sequence of coding within that document. This feature allows you to identify relevant aspects of the discourse and analyze their weight in this particular document. Below are some steps for using the Document Portrait:

• Document Selection: Select the document for which you want to create a document portrait. The document selected should be representative of the discourse you are analyzing.
• Identify relevant features: Identify the codes that you want to visualize. These may be specific relevant features, themes or characteristics of the document, or other elements relevant to the discourse.
• Weighting of Features: The length of the segment is used as a weighting factor for the Document Portrait.
• Creation of the Document Portrait: Generate the Document Portrait in MAXQDA. The portrait visualizes the identified features and their weighting in the selected document. As a result, you obtain a visual representation of the sequence of coding performed within the document.
• Analysis of the Portrait: Analyze the Document Portrait to identify important features, themes, or characteristics of the document. This allows you to locate and understand relevant aspects of the discourse within a particular document.

The Codeline is a powerful tool in MAXQDA that allows you to visually represent the use of different codes within a document. By displaying the sequence of codes, you can see the flow and development of the discourse. With the Codeline, you can not only see which codes were used in specific sections of the document, but you can also track the progression of codings within a document. This allows you to identify crucial stages, turning points, or focal points in the discourse. The Codeline also allows you to analyze coded segments over time. You can examine specific codes and their occurrences or changes over time. This allows you to examine and interpret trends, patterns, or changes in the discourse more closely. The Codeline is therefore a valuable tool for considering the temporal progression and development of discourse in your analysis. By analyzing coded segments over time, you can gain a deeper understanding of the dynamics and context of the discourse, leading to more informed interpretations.

The Word Cloud is a powerful visualization tool in MAXQDA that helps you visually represent frequently occurring words or terms in the discourse. By looking at the size or weight of the words in the Word Cloud, you can quickly see which terms are particularly prevalent or significant in the discourse. By analyzing the Word Cloud, you can identify key terms in the discourse and examine their weight or frequency in relation to other terms. This allows you to identify and understand important themes, trends, or focuses in the discourse. In addition, you can use the Word Cloud to identify connections between different terms. If certain words occur frequently together or are used in similar contexts, you can identify associations or links in the discourse. The Word Cloud is thus a valuable tool for getting a quick and clear representation of the most common words or terms in the discourse. By analyzing the key terms and their weighting, you can gain important insights into the content and structure of the discourse and make a well-informed interpretation.

We offer a variety of free learning materials to help you get started with MAXQDA. Check out our Getting Started Guide to get a quick overview of MAXQDA and step-by-step instructions on setting up your software and creating your first project with your brand new QDA software. In addition, the free Literature Reviews Guide explains how to conduct a literature review with MAXQDA.

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What (Exactly) Is Discourse Analysis?

By: Jenna Crosley (PhD). Expert Reviewed By: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | June 2021

Overview: Discourse Analysis Basics

In this post, we’ll explain in plain, straightforward language :

• What discourse analysis is
• When to use discourse analysis
• The main approaches to discourse analysis
• How to conduct discourse analysis

What is discourse analysis?

Let’s start with the word “discourse”.

In its simplest form, discourse is verbal or written communication between people that goes beyond a single sentence . Importantly, discourse is more than just language. The term “language” can include all forms of linguistic and symbolic units (even things such as road signs), and language studies can focus on the individual meanings of words. Discourse goes beyond this and looks at the overall meanings conveyed by language in context .  “Context” here refers to the social, cultural, political, and historical background of the discourse, and it is important to take this into account to understand underlying meanings expressed through language.

A popular way of viewing discourse is as language used in specific social contexts, and as such language serves as a means of prompting some form of social change or meeting some form of goal.

Now that we’ve defined discourse, let’s look at discourse analysis .

Discourse analysis uses the language presented in a corpus or body of data to draw meaning . This body of data could include a set of interviews or focus group discussion transcripts. While some forms of discourse analysis center in on the specifics of language (such as sounds or grammar), other forms focus on how this language is used to achieve its aims. We’ll dig deeper into these two above-mentioned approaches later.

As Wodak and Krzyżanowski (2008) put it: “discourse analysis provides a general framework to problem-oriented social research”. Basically, discourse analysis is used to conduct research on the use of language in context in a wide variety of social problems (i.e., issues in society that affect individuals negatively).

For example, discourse analysis could be used to assess how language is used to express differing viewpoints on financial inequality and would look at how the topic should or shouldn’t be addressed or resolved, and whether this so-called inequality is perceived as such by participants.

What makes discourse analysis unique is that it posits that social reality is socially constructed , or that our experience of the world is understood from a subjective standpoint. Discourse analysis goes beyond the literal meaning of words and languages

For example, people in countries that make use of a lot of censorship will likely have their knowledge, and thus views, limited by this, and will thus have a different subjective reality to those within countries with more lax laws on censorship.

When should you use discourse analysis?

There are many ways to analyze qualitative data (such as content analysis , narrative analysis , and thematic analysis ), so why should you choose discourse analysis? Well, as with all analysis methods, the nature of your research aims, objectives and research questions (i.e. the purpose of your research) will heavily influence the right choice of analysis method.

The purpose of discourse analysis is to investigate the functions of language (i.e., what language is used for) and how meaning is constructed in different contexts, which, to recap, include the social, cultural, political, and historical backgrounds of the discourse.

For example, if you were to study a politician’s speeches, you would need to situate these speeches in their context, which would involve looking at the politician’s background and views, the reasons for presenting the speech, the history or context of the audience, and the country’s social and political history (just to name a few – there are always multiple contextual factors).

Discourse analysis can also tell you a lot about power and power imbalances , including how this is developed and maintained, how this plays out in real life (for example, inequalities because of this power), and how language can be used to maintain it. For example, you could look at the way that someone with more power (for example, a CEO) speaks to someone with less power (for example, a lower-level employee).

Therefore, you may consider discourse analysis if you are researching:

• Some form of power or inequality (for example, how affluent individuals interact with those who are less wealthy
• How people communicate in a specific context (such as in a social situation with colleagues versus a board meeting)
• Ideology and how ideas (such as values and beliefs) are shared using language (like in political speeches)
• How communication is used to achieve social goals (such as maintaining a friendship or navigating conflict)

As you can see, discourse analysis can be a powerful tool for assessing social issues , as well as power and power imbalances . So, if your research aims and objectives are oriented around these types of issues, discourse analysis could be a good fit for you.

Discourse Analysis: The main approaches

There are two main approaches to discourse analysis. These are the language-in-use (also referred to as socially situated text and talk ) approaches and the socio-political approaches (most commonly Critical Discourse Analysis ). Let’s take a look at each of these.

Approach #1: Language-in-use

Language-in-use approaches focus on the finer details of language used within discourse, such as sentence structures (grammar) and phonology (sounds). This approach is very descriptive and is seldom seen outside of studies focusing on literature and/or linguistics.

Because of its formalist roots, language-in-use pays attention to different rules of communication, such as grammaticality (i.e., when something “sounds okay” to a native speaker of a language). Analyzing discourse through a language-in-use framework involves identifying key technicalities of language used in discourse and investigating how the features are used within a particular social context.

For example, English makes use of affixes (for example, “un” in “unbelievable”) and suffixes (“able” in “unbelievable”) but doesn’t typically make use of infixes (units that can be placed within other words to alter their meaning). However, an English speaker may say something along the lines of, “that’s un-flipping-believable”. From a language-in-use perspective, the infix “flipping” could be investigated by assessing how rare the phenomenon is in English, and then answering questions such as, “What role does the infix play?” or “What is the goal of using such an infix?”

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Approach #2: Socio-political

Socio-political approaches to discourse analysis look beyond the technicalities of language and instead focus on the influence that language has in social context , and vice versa. One of the main socio-political approaches is Critical Discourse Analysis , which focuses on power structures (for example, the power dynamic between a teacher and a student) and how discourse is influenced by society and culture. Critical Discourse Analysis is born out of Michel Foucault’s early work on power, which focuses on power structures through the analysis of normalized power .

Normalized power is ingrained and relatively allusive. It’s what makes us exist within society (and within the underlying norms of society, as accepted in a specific social context) and do the things that we need to do. Contrasted to this, a more obvious form of power is repressive power , which is power that is actively asserted.

Sounds a bit fluffy? Let’s look at an example.

Consider a situation where a teacher threatens a student with detention if they don’t stop speaking in class. This would be an example of repressive power (i.e. it was actively asserted).

Normalized power, on the other hand, is what makes us not want to talk in class . It’s the subtle clues we’re given from our environment that tell us how to behave, and this form of power is so normal to us that we don’t even realize that our beliefs, desires, and decisions are being shaped by it.

In the view of Critical Discourse Analysis, language is power and, if we want to understand power dynamics and structures in society, we must look to language for answers. In other words, analyzing the use of language can help us understand the social context, especially the power dynamics.

While the above-mentioned approaches are the two most popular approaches to discourse analysis, other forms of analysis exist. For example, ethnography-based discourse analysis and multimodal analysis. Ethnography-based discourse analysis aims to gain an insider understanding of culture , customs, and habits through participant observation (i.e. directly observing participants, rather than focusing on pre-existing texts).

On the other hand, multimodal analysis focuses on a variety of texts that are both verbal and nonverbal (such as a combination of political speeches and written press releases). So, if you’re considering using discourse analysis, familiarize yourself with the various approaches available so that you can make a well-informed decision.

How to “do” discourse analysis

As every study is different, it’s challenging to outline exactly what steps need to be taken to complete your research. However, the following steps can be used as a guideline if you choose to adopt discourse analysis for your research.

Step 1: Decide on your discourse analysis approach

The first step of the process is to decide on which approach you will take in terms. For example, the language in use approach or a socio-political approach such as critical discourse analysis. To do this, you need to consider your research aims, objectives and research questions . Of course, this means that you need to have these components clearly defined. If you’re still a bit uncertain about these, check out our video post covering topic development here.

While discourse analysis can be exploratory (as in, used to find out about a topic that hasn’t really been touched on yet), it is still vital to have a set of clearly defined research questions to guide your analysis. Without these, you may find that you lack direction when you get to your analysis. Since discourse analysis places such a focus on context, it is also vital that your research questions are linked to studying language within context.

Based on your research aims, objectives and research questions, you need to assess which discourse analysis would best suit your needs. Importantly, you  need to adopt an approach that aligns with your study’s purpose . So, think carefully about what you are investigating and what you want to achieve, and then consider the various options available within discourse analysis.

It’s vital to determine your discourse analysis approach from the get-go , so that you don’t waste time randomly analyzing your data without any specific plan.

Step 2: Design your collection method and gather your data

Once you’ve got determined your overarching approach, you can start looking at how to collect your data. Data in discourse analysis is drawn from different forms of “talk” and “text” , which means that it can consist of interviews , ethnographies, discussions, case studies, blog posts.

The type of data you collect will largely depend on your research questions (and broader research aims and objectives). So, when you’re gathering your data, make sure that you keep in mind the “what”, “who” and “why” of your study, so that you don’t end up with a corpus full of irrelevant data. Discourse analysis can be very time-consuming, so you want to ensure that you’re not wasting time on information that doesn’t directly pertain to your research questions.

When considering potential collection methods, you should also consider the practicalities . What type of data can you access in reality? How many participants do you have access to and how much time do you have available to collect data and make sense of it? These are important factors, as you’ll run into problems if your chosen methods are impractical in light of your constraints.

Once you’ve determined your data collection method, you can get to work with the collection.

Step 3: Investigate the context

A key part of discourse analysis is context and understanding meaning in context. For this reason, it is vital that you thoroughly and systematically investigate the context of your discourse. Make sure that you can answer (at least the majority) of the following questions:

• What is the discourse?
• Why does the discourse exist? What is the purpose and what are the aims of the discourse?
• When did the discourse take place?
• Where did it happen?
• Who participated in the discourse? Who created it and who consumed it?
• What does the discourse say about society in general?
• How is meaning being conveyed in the context of the discourse?

Make sure that you include all aspects of the discourse context in your analysis to eliminate any confounding factors. For example, are there any social, political, or historical reasons as to why the discourse would exist as it does? What other factors could contribute to the existence of the discourse? Discourse can be influenced by many factors, so it is vital that you take as many of them into account as possible.

Once you’ve investigated the context of your data, you’ll have a much better idea of what you’re working with, and you’ll be far more familiar with your content. It’s then time to begin your analysis.

Step 4: Analyze your data

When performing a discourse analysis, you’ll need to look for themes and patterns .  To do this, you’ll start by looking at codes , which are specific topics within your data. You can find more information about the qualitative data coding process here.

Next, you’ll take these codes and identify themes. Themes are patterns of language (such as specific words or sentences) that pop up repeatedly in your data, and that can tell you something about the discourse. For example, if you’re wanting to know about women’s perspectives of living in a certain area, potential themes may be “safety” or “convenience”.

In discourse analysis, it is important to reach what is called data saturation . This refers to when you’ve investigated your topic and analyzed your data to the point where no new information can be found. To achieve this, you need to work your way through your data set multiple times, developing greater depth and insight each time. This can be quite time consuming and even a bit boring at times, but it’s essential.

Once you’ve reached the point of saturation, you should have an almost-complete analysis and you’re ready to move onto the next step – final review.

Step 5: Review your work

Hey, you’re nearly there. Good job! Now it’s time to review your work.

This final step requires you to return to your research questions and compile your answers to them, based on the analysis. Make sure that you can answer your research questions thoroughly, and also substantiate your responses with evidence from your data.

Usually, discourse analysis studies make use of appendices, which are referenced within your thesis or dissertation. This makes it easier for reviewers or markers to jump between your analysis (and findings) and your corpus (your evidence) so that it’s easier for them to assess your work.

When answering your research questions, make you should also revisit your research aims and objectives , and assess your answers against these. This process will help you zoom out a little and give you a bigger picture view. With your newfound insights from the analysis, you may find, for example, that it makes sense to expand the research question set a little to achieve a more comprehensive view of the topic.

Let’s recap…

In this article, we’ve covered quite a bit of ground. The key takeaways are:

• Discourse analysis is a qualitative analysis method used to draw meaning from language in context.
• You should consider using discourse analysis when you wish to analyze the functions and underlying meanings of language in context.
• The two overarching approaches to discourse analysis are language-in-use and socio-political approaches.
• The main steps involved in undertaking discourse analysis are deciding on your analysis approach (based on your research questions), choosing a data collection method, collecting your data, investigating the context of your data, analyzing your data, and reviewing your work.

If you have any questions about discourse analysis, feel free to leave a comment below. If you’d like 1-on-1 help with your analysis, book an initial consultation with a friendly Grad Coach to see how we can help.

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35 Comments

This was really helpful to me

I would like to know the importance of discourse analysis analysis to academic writing

In academic writing coherence and cohesion are very important. DA will assist us to decide cohesiveness of the continuum of discourse that are used in it. We can judge it well.

Thank you so much for this piece, can you please direct how I can use Discourse Analysis to investigate politics of ethnicity in a particular society

I would like to get more practical examples, also to know how can the discourse analysis help us in our academic studies.

Fantastically helpful! Could you write on how discourse analysis can be done using computer aided technique? Many thanks

I would like to know if I can use discourse analysis to research on electoral integrity deviation and when election are considered free & fair

I also to know the importance of discourse analysis and it’s purpose and characteristics

This is helpful. It is highly informative. Thank you. Is it possible to use more one analysis technique? I would to book for personal assistance. I am doing my Methodology chapter for a PhD Thesis.

Thanks, we are doing discourse analysis as a subject this year and this helped a lot!

Please can you help explain and answer this question? With illustrations,Hymes’ Acronym SPEAKING, as a feature of Discourse Analysis.

What are the three objectives of discourse analysis especially on the topic how people communicate between doctor and patient

Very useful Thank you for your work and information

thank you so much , I wanna know more about discourse analysis tools , such as , latent analysis , active powers analysis, proof paths analysis, image analysis, rhetorical analysis, propositions analysis, and so on, I wish I can get references about it , thanks in advance

Its beyond my expectations. It made me clear everything which I was struggling since last 4 months. 👏 👏 👏 👏

Thank you so much … It is clear and helpful

Thanks for sharing this material. My question is related to the online newspaper articles on COVID -19 pandemic the way this new normal is constructed as a social reality. How discourse analysis is an appropriate approach to examine theese articles?

This very helpful and interesting information

This was incredible! And massively helpful.

I’m seeking further assistance if you don’t mind.

Found it worth consuming!

What are the four types of discourse analysis?

very helpful. And I’d like to know more about Ethnography-based discourse analysis as I’m studying arts and humanities, I’d like to know how can I use it in my study.

Amazing info. Very happy to read this helpful piece of documentation. Thank you.

is discourse analysis can take data from medias like TV, Radio…?

I need to know what is general discourse analysis

Direct to the point, simple and deep explanation. this is helpful indeed.

Thank you so much was really helpful

really impressive

Thank you very much, for the clear explanations and examples.

It is really awesome. Anybody within just in 5 minutes understand this critical topic so easily. Thank you so much.

Thank you for enriching my knowledge on Discourse Analysis . Very helpful thanks again

This was extremely helpful. I feel less anxious now. Thank you so much.

Extremely helpful, I am going to be working on CDA about animal rights, particularly stray dogs using social media content, and I was so lost, thank you for clearly illustrating how the research should go forward, thank you

This is helpful. It is highly informative. Thank you. Is it possible to use more than one analysis technique in a single study? I would like to book for personal assistance. I am doing my Methodology chapter for a PhD Thesis.

This is very helpful. Thanks a lot!

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Discourse Analysis Applications: With Examples

• by Discourse Analyzer
• April 1, 2024 May 3, 2024

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“Discourse Analysis Applications: With Examples” provides an enlightening exploration of how Discourse Analysis (DA) is employed across diverse sectors to unearth the nuanced ways language influences society. This article dives into several practical applications of DA, showcasing its versatility in fields ranging from media studies and politics to healthcare and environmental discourse. Each section not only describes how DA is used but also links these applications to real-world impacts, such as shaping public opinion , uncovering bias in legal contexts , or enhancing communication in healthcare settings.

Readers will learn how DA helps analyze political speeches to reveal underlying ideologies, or how it decodes media representations to understand societal values . The blog also highlights how DA in healthcare leads to better patient outcomes through improved communication strategies. Additionally, the article provides examples such as the analysis of social media movements like #MeToo, which illustrates DA’s role in societal change .

By offering a broad overview yet detailing specific instances where DA has been effectively implemented, the article aims to provide readers with a clear understanding of the practical significance of studying language in context. This introduction serves as a primer for anyone interested in the transformative power of language analysis in both understanding and shaping the world around us.

1) Media Studies

2) political discourse, 3) healthcare communication, 4) education, 5) social media and online communities, 6) legal studies, 7) organizational and corporate communication, 8) environmental discourse, 9) gender studies, 10) public health and crisis communication.

• 1) Political Discourse: Obama's Speeches

2) Media Studies: The #MeToo Movement

3) healthcare communication: doctor-patient interactions, 4) education: classroom discourse, 5) legal studies: courtroom language, 6) environmental discourse: climate change communication, frequently asked questions, 1. discourse analysis applications.

Discourse Analysis (DA) is a versatile and powerful tool used across a wide range of fields and applications. By examining how language is used in various contexts, DA provides insights into the construction of meaning , social identity , and power dynamics. Below are detailed applications of Discourse Analysis in various domains:

In media studies, DA is used to analyze how news outlets, social media, films, and other media forms produce and reflect societal norms and values. Researchers might examine how media discourse constructs identities (e.g., gender, race, nationality) and propagates ideologies, or how it frames events and issues, influencing public perception and opinion.

DA is crucial in understanding political communication, including speeches, debates , policy documents , and propaganda . It can reveal how political language shapes public discourse, constructs political identities , and mobilizes or manipulates public sentiment . For instance, analyzing rhetorical strategies or the framing of issues can uncover underlying ideologies and power structures.

In healthcare, DA can be applied to patient-provider interactions , medical education , and health policy documents to improve communication and outcomes. It helps in understanding how language use affects patient engagement, consent, and decision-making. Analysis of discourse in this context can identify communication barriers and enhance the clarity and effectiveness of health messages.

DA techniques are used to examine classroom interactions, educational policies, and academic texts . This application can uncover how educational discourses influence teaching practices, learner engagement, and the construction of knowledge. It also explores issues of identity, authority, and power within educational settings.

With the rise of digital communication, DA has become essential in analyzing online interactions. It can explore how online discourse communities form and maintain social norms, how identity and authority are negotiated in digital spaces, and how online discourse influences real-world actions and beliefs.

In legal contexts, DA examines legal texts, courtroom discourse, and police-citizen interactions to reveal how legal realities are constructed through language. It can highlight issues of fairness, bias, and power in legal proceedings, contributing to more transparent and equitable legal practices.

DA is used to analyze corporate communication strategies, workplace interactions, and organizational cultures . It can reveal how corporate discourse shapes brand identity, employee relations, and consumer perceptions, offering insights for more effective communication and organizational practices.

This application involves analyzing discourse related to environmental issues, policies, and activism. DA can uncover how environmental narratives are constructed, how they reflect and shape societal values and attitudes towards the environment, and how they mobilize action or resistance.

DA in gender studies examines how discourses construct and perpetuate gender identities and relations. It can analyze the representation of gender in media, the language of gendered violence, or discourses surrounding gender rights and equality, contributing to a deeper understanding of gender issues.

During health crises, such as pandemics, DA can analyze public health messages, media coverage, and public discourse to understand how crisis communication strategies affect public behavior and attitudes towards health measures.

These applications demonstrate the breadth and depth of Discourse Analysis as a tool for understanding and influencing the complex ways in which language shapes social reality . By uncovering the nuances of language use in various contexts, DA contributes to critical insights and interventions across disciplines.

2. Case Studies & Examples

Integrating case studies or examples into an explanation of Discourse Analysis (DA) can vividly illustrate its practical applications and the depth of insights it can provide. Here are a few examples across different domains:

1) Political Discourse: Obama’s Speeches

A notable case study involves the analysis of former U.S. President Barack Obama’s speeches. Researchers have employed DA to understand how Obama used rhetorical strategies to construct a relatable and authoritative persona. Through DA, scholars examined how he navigated racial identity, national unity, and political ideology , often using inclusive language and storytelling to connect with diverse audiences. This analysis highlights the power of political discourse in shaping public perception and national identity.

The #MeToo movement provides a rich case for DA within media studies, particularly in examining how social media discourse can drive social change. Analysis of #MeToo-related content on platforms like Twitter and Facebook revealed how survivors used narrative to share experiences, creating a powerful discourse that challenged societal norms around sexual harassment and assault. DA in this context uncovers the mechanisms through which digital platforms can amplify marginalized voices and mobilize collective action.

In healthcare, DA has been applied to study the discourse between doctors and patients, particularly in sensitive areas such as end-of-life care discussions. One case study involved analyzing conversations in oncology settings to understand how physicians communicate diagnoses and treatment options. The findings emphasized the need for clear, compassionate communication practices that acknowledge patient autonomy and emotional well-being, influencing training programs for healthcare professionals.

DA has been used to examine classroom interactions and their impact on learning environments. One example involved analyzing teacher-student dialogue in science classrooms to identify how questions were used to stimulate critical thinking and engagement. This study revealed patterns in how teachers’ questioning techniques either encouraged or stifled student participation and inquiry, leading to recommendations for pedagogical strategies that foster a more interactive and inclusive learning atmosphere.

Courtroom discourse analysis provides insights into the language used in legal settings and its implications for justice and fairness. A notable case involved analyzing the language used by prosecutors and defense attorneys in jury trials to identify how each party constructs narratives to persuade the jury. The study highlighted the strategic use of language to frame evidence, character judgments, and emotional appeals, underscoring the performative aspects of legal discourse and its potential impact on trial outcomes.

Research on climate change communication has utilized DA to explore how environmental issues are discussed in political, media, and scientific discourses. One case study analyzed speeches by world leaders at the United Nations Climate Change Conferences, revealing how different nations frame the issue of climate change in terms of responsibility, urgency, and action. This analysis helps understand the political and ideological underpinnings of environmental policies and the role of discourse in shaping global environmental agendas.

Discourse Analysis (DA) stands as a critical lens through which the intricate web of language, power, and social structure is unraveled across diverse fields. By dissecting language use in contexts ranging from media and politics to healthcare and education, DA illuminates the nuanced ways in which discourse shapes our understanding of the world, constructs social identities , and navigates power dynamics. The application of DA across various domains not only enriches our comprehension of discourse’s role in societal phenomena but also empowers interventions and policy-making aimed at fostering more equitable and understanding societies.

The detailed case studies, ranging from the analysis of Barack Obama’s speeches to the exploration of the #MeToo movement’s impact through social media, underscore DA’s versatility and its potent capability to reveal underlying societal norms and power structures. These examples vividly illustrate DA’s ability to provide meaningful insights into the construction of narratives and identities, showcasing its paramount importance in deciphering the complex language mechanisms that influence public perception and behavior.

Moreover, the exploration of DA in contexts such as healthcare communication, legal studies, and environmental discourse emphasizes the practical implications of understanding discourse. By revealing how language can both empower and marginalize, DA serves as a foundational tool in advocating for change, enhancing communication strategies, and understanding the multifaceted nature of human interaction .

In conclusion, Discourse Analysis offers a profound framework for examining the omnipresent influence of language in shaping human experience and societal structures . Its applications across a myriad of fields underscore the universal relevance of discourse in our daily lives and institutional frameworks. As we continue to navigate a world increasingly dominated by diverse forms of communication, the insights provided by DA remain indispensable in our quest to foster a more inclusive, understanding, and reflective society. Through the lens of DA, we are better equipped to recognize the power of language in constructing our realities and are thus called to engage with it more critically and conscientiously.

Unlike traditional linguistic analysis, which often focuses on the structure and grammar of language, Discourse Analysis examines language use in social contexts to understand how it shapes and is shaped by cultural, social, and political dynamics. DA explores the meaning beyond the text, considering the implications of discourse on identity, power relations , and societal norms.

Yes, Discourse Analysis can extend to non-verbal communication through Multimodal Discourse Analysis . This approach analyzes how various modes of communication (e.g., gestures, images, layout) work together with verbal language to produce meaning and affect audience interpretation and response.

Technology, particularly advanced software and algorithms, plays a crucial role in modern DA by enabling the analysis of large datasets (corpora) through Corpus Linguistics . It facilitates the identification of patterns, trends, and anomalies in discourse across vast amounts of text, making DA more efficient and comprehensive.

DA can significantly influence policy making by revealing how language and discourse shape public understanding and attitudes towards policy issues. By unpacking the discourse surrounding policy debates, DA can help policymakers communicate more effectively, address public concerns, and anticipate the societal impact of policy decisions.

DA contributes to social change by exposing and critiquing the power dynamics and ideologies embedded in discourse. By analyzing and challenging the discourse that perpetuates inequality or injustice, DA empowers advocacy and reform efforts aimed at creating a more equitable society.

DA is pivotal in combating misinformation by analyzing the strategies used to spread false information and understanding how it gains traction within communities. By dissecting the discourse of misinformation, researchers can develop strategies to counteract it and promote accurate information.

Ethical considerations in DA include ensuring the privacy and consent of individuals whose communication is analyzed, especially in online and digital contexts. Researchers must also navigate the potential for bias and ensure their analyses do not harm the communities or individuals studied.

Limitations of DA include its inherent subjectivity in interpreting texts and the potential for researcher bias. Additionally, DA’s focus on language and discourse means it may overlook non-discursive factors influencing social phenomena .

Learning DA involves a multidisciplinary approach, including studying linguistics, sociology , and anthropology . Engaging with academic literature, taking coursework or workshops focused on DA, and practicing analysis with diverse texts are effective ways to build skills in DA.

As global communication becomes more digital and interconnected, DA is evolving to address new forms of discourse, such as digital communication patterns, cross-cultural interactions, and the impact of social media on public discourse. Researchers are continually developing new methodologies to analyze these changing landscapes of communication.

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Chapter 23: Discourse analysis

Tess Tsindos

Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe discourse analysis.
• Understand how to conduct discourse analysis.
• Identify the strengths and limitations of discourse analysis.

What is discourse analysis?

Discourse analysis is a field of qualitative analysis that has its origins in disciplines such as linguistics, philosophy, psychology, anthropology. 1 It is an interdisciplinary field that deals with ‘language’ and meaning. 2

According to Jaworski and Coupland, the purpose of discourse analysis is that it ‘offers a means of exposing or deconstructing the social practices that constitute ‘social structure’ and what we might call the conventional meaning structures of social life. It is a sort of forensic activity’. 3 ( p5 ) There are three domains of discourse analysis: the study of social interaction; the study of minds, selves and sense-making; and the study of culture and social relations. 4 ( p5 )

Discourse analysis is the study of texts such as transcribed interviews, websites, forums, books, newspapers, government documents (and many more), and the analysis of those texts to understand different accounts and the meanings behind those accounts. Qualitative researchers strive to understand the relationships between text (discourse) and social constructs. As text is analysed, the meaning behind the text is also explored, often as the ‘voices’ in the text. For example, when a participant is asked about their eating habits and they discuss their joy in eating as well as feelings of guilt from eating high-calorific foods, they may be voicing their parents’ disapproval of this eating behaviour. The relationship between text and social constructs can also be seen in alcohol advertising: an advertisement may be promoting alcohol consumption as a fun behaviour, but also cautions listeners to drink ‘responsibly’, because the advertiser is required to do so by advertising standards authorities. This inherent contradiction in the advertising is part of the meaning-making regarding alcohol consumption. This meaning-making is contextual and differs between countries, such as Australia (a high alcohol consumption culture) and Canada (a lower alcohol consumption culture). Another example of context is in the use of the word ‘just’ by an interview participant; the term can mean many things, but if the researcher is asking about job title, ‘just’ may the participant’s implication or inference that the title does not reflect an important position (e.g. ‘I’m just an editor’). In discourse analysis, texts, meanings and inferences are important.

Following is an example of media articles and two distinct discourses about violence towards women. The first media article, published by The Guardian on 15 June 2018 , 5 presents a discourse about how it is the responsibility of women to prevent men from being violent towards them. The second article about the same incident, published by The Age on 25 May 2019, 6 presents a discourse that it is the responsibility of men not to be violent towards women.

Meanings of texts are particularly important when participants use metaphors. The researcher needs to examine the implications of the metaphor, deliberate or inadvertent. For example, when the researcher asks the participant how they felt about their life and the participant replies, ‘life is a highway’, the researcher needs to look beyond what was said to understand the participant’s meaning.

As an interdisciplinary method, discourse analysis can be complex and intricate. Gee 7 provides 72 tools to assist with various types of discourse analysis, ranging from identifying what is being said and what is not being said, to examining ‘how the person is using language, as well as ways of acting, interacting, believing, valuing, dressing, and using various objects, tools, and technologies in certain sorts of environments to enact a specific socially recognizable identity and engage in one or more socially recognizable activities’. 7 ( p201 ) Gee also includes a helpful table (see Table 23.1) populated with his 7 building tasks for researchers to examine their discourses, and provides the answers. 8

Table 23.1. Seven Building Tasks and associated discourse analysis questions

How to conduct discourse analysis.

Discourse analysis, as in all other qualitative methods, is used depending on the research topic and question(s) or aim(s). The following steps are recommended:

Step 1: Have a clearly defined topic and research question, because this informs the types of research materials that will be used.

Step 2: Conduct wide-ranging searches for materials that will inform the research topic.

Step 3: Determine which theory and framework will be used as the underpinning foundation for the analyses (see Section 1 chapters 1–4).

Step 4: Analyse the content of the materials. This analysis is different (but similar) to content analysis, which is a research technique to systematically classify codes and identify themes or patterns within the data. Discourse analysis is concerned with identifying themes and patterns within the texts that relate to the social contexts reflected in the research topic and within the theoretical lens chosen for analyses.

Step 5: Interpret and draw conclusions. Reflect on your work and examine how the various texts use language within the context of the research topic to answer the research question(s).

As an example, Table 23.3 includes a study on girls’ experience of competitive dancing . 9 The authors progressed through the steps as follows:

Step 1: The topic is eating disorders and young dancers. The research question is ‘ How does experience in the world of competitive dance shape the relationship that young girls have with their bodies ?’

Step 2: The author conducted wide – ranging literature searches on eating disorders, ballet dancers, body image, thinness, Western culture, dieting, media influences and many more topics.

Step 3: Feminism was the theoretical underpinning of the text ual analys i s. As described by the authors, ‘ a feminist post structural approach was chosen to provide a critical lens to explore the beliefs, values, and practices of young dancers… aimed to provide an understanding of the dominant and competing discourses present in the world of dance and discover how these discourses are constituted, perpetuated, and form ways of knowing in relation to body and body image.’ 9(p 7 )

Ste p 4: T he transcripts were analysed in 5 steps , following Aston 10 a nd presented in table 23.2 :

Table 23.2. A guide to using feminist poststructuralism informed by discourse analysis

*Note: This table is from an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits copy and redistribution of material in any medium or format, remix, transform and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially provided the original work is properly cited.

Step 5: Results were first interpreted within an ‘environmental’ context (competitive culture, ideal dancer’s body, mirrors, and dance attire and costumes) , which was predominately negative due to the competitive culture. The second context was ‘parents’ , which encompassed body monitoring, joking, and parents and support. Although most of the dancers stated that their parents did not influence their relationship with their body, discourse analysis demonstrated that parents did influence them. The third context was ‘ coaches’ . Coaches had a very strong influence on participants’ body image. While the dancers believed their coaches were supportive, the discourse demonstrated that most coach es’ comments were negative. ‘Peers’ represented in the final context for analysis. Again, the dancers believed their peers were supportive ; however , discourse analysis demonstrated that many peer comments were negative. The conclusions drawn from the research were that ‘ all participants experienced negative physical, mental, and/or emotional repercussions throughout their competitive dance experience. It was also determined that environment, parents, coaches, and peers largely shaped the dancer’s relationship with body and body image in the world of dance. These influences generated and perpetuated the dominant negative body image discourse that dancers were often unable to resist, and consequently their relationship with body and body image suffered.’ 9(p p22-23 )

This is a good example of situating a topic (body image) within a context (young women dancing) underpinned by a theoretical framework that explores the dancers’ beliefs, values and practices.

Table 23.3. Discourse analysis examples

Advantages and challenges of discourse analysis.

Discourse analysis can be used to analyse small and large data sets with homogenous and heterogenous samples. It can be applied to any type of data source, from interviews and focus groups to diary entries, news reports and online discussion forums. However, interpretation in discourse analysis can lead to limitations and challenges that tend to occur when discourse analysis is misapplied or done poorly. Discourse analysis can be highly flexible and is best used when anchored in a theoretical approach. Because discourse analysis involves subjective interpretation, training and support from a qualitative researcher with expertise in the method is required to ensure that the interpretation of the data is meaningful. Finally, discourse analysis can be time-consuming when analysing large volumes of texts.

Discourse analysis is a process whereby texts are examined and interpreted. It looks for the meanings ‘behind’ text in cultural and social contexts. Discourse analysis is flexible, and the researcher has scope to interpret the text(s) based on the research topic and aim(s). Having a theoretical approach assists the researcher to position the discourse in cultural and social grounding.

• Schiffrin D, Tannen D et al . , ed s . The Handbook of Discourse Analysis . Blackwell ; 2001.
• Jaworski A, Coupland N. eds. The Discourse Reader . 2nd ed. Routledge; 2006.
• Jaworski A, Coupland N. Introduction: perspectives on discourse analysis. In: Jaworski A, Coupland N, eds. The Discourse Reader . 2nd ed. Routledge; 2006.
• Wetherell M, Taylor S, Yates S. (2001) Discourse Theory and Practice: A Reader . 2nd ed. Sage. 2001.
• Davey M. ‘Men need to change’: anger grows over police response to Eurydice Dixon’s murder. Guardian . June 15, 2018. Accessed April 28, 2023. https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/jun/15/men-need-to-change-anger-grows-over-police-response-to-comedians#:~:text=Melbourne
• Fowler M. ‘This is about men’s behaviour’, says top policy offer after another woman’s murder . Age . May 25, 2019. Accessed April 28, 2023. https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/this-is-about-men-s-behaviour-says-top-police-officer-after-another-woman-s-murder-20190525-p51r46.html
• Gee J. How t o d o Discourse Analysis: A Toolkit .  2nd ed. Routledge; 2014.
• Gee J. An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method . 3rd ed. Routledge; 2011.
• Doria N, Numer M. Dancing in a culture of disordered eating: a feminist poststructural analysis of body and body image among young girls in the world of dance. PLoS ONE . 2022;17(1): e0247651. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0247651
• Aston M. Teaching feminist poststructuralism: founding scholars still relevant today.  Creative Education . 2016;7(15):2251-2267. doi: 10.4236/ce.2016.715220
• Öhman A, Burman M, Carbin M et al . ‘The public health turn on violence against women’: analysing Swedish healthcare law, public health and gender-equality policies.  BMC Public Health . 2020;20:753. doi:10.1186/s12889-020-08766-7
• Carrasco JM, Gómez-Baceiredo B, Navas A et al. Social representation of palliative care in the Spanish printed media: a qualitative analysis. PLoS ONE . 2019;14(1):e0211106. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211106

Qualitative Research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners Copyright © 2023 by Darshini Ayton; Tess Tsindos; Danielle Berkovic is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Discourse Analysis

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

What is Discourse Analysis?

Discourse analysis is a qualitative research method used to study written and spoken language in relation to its social context. It aims to understand how language is used in real-life situations.

It goes beyond analyzing just the words and sentences to establish a deeper understanding of how language is used.

Instead, it examines the linguistic content (what is being said) and the way language is used in a given text to convey meaning in different social settings.

Instead of simply focusing on the literal meanings of words and sentences, discourse analysis explores the deeper meaning behind how language is used in specific social contexts.

This method of research analyzes the intended meaning behind the words and phrases within a specific context, rather than just their definition, frequency, or surface-level themes.

It helps researchers understand the underlying values, assumptions, and intentions embedded in language.

Language helps people share thoughts and ideas, build relationships, establish culture, influence others, and create meaning.

Discourse analysis, therefore, provides a lens through which researchers can view the many functions of language, including shaping power structures, constructing societal narratives, and molding opinions

Researchers use discourse analysis to study:

• How language creates and maintains social identities: Researchers can analyze how linguistic choices contribute to identity formation and expression by scrutinizing language use in diverse settings.
• How language creates and maintains power relations: This involves analyzing how language is used to reinforce or challenge power structures and reveal unspoken assumptions and biases related to social hierarchies. For instance, analyzing how politicians use language to construct social divisions.
• How language is shaped by and reflects social and cultural values: Discourse analysis recognizing that meaning is shaped by social and cultural factors. It explores how language use reflects cultural values and how those values, in turn, influence language interpretation.
• How language constructs and maintains social reality: Discourse analysis recognizes that language does not merely reflect reality but actively constructs and maintains it. It investigates how individuals utilize shared linguistic resources to create specific versions of social phenomena and realities.
• How language can be used to persuade, inform, or entertain: Discourse analysts recognize that language is inherently action-oriented, meaning people use it to accomplish particular interactional goals, which can include persuading, informing, or entertaining. For example, studying how politicians use persuasive language in political discourse to win elections.

Key Concepts

The social, cultural, and historical factors that influence communication play a crucial role in discourse analysis. The context of a conversation shapes the meaning of the language used, even if the words themselves are the same. For instance, a chat with a police officer differs significantly from a casual conversation with a close friend, highlighting the importance of context in shaping language use.

2. Structure

Discourse analysis examines how language is organized and structured to convey meaning. This involves studying elements such as:

• Turn-taking in conversations.
• The overall organization of interactions.
• How sequences of language are organized.

3. Statements

By dissecting individual statements within a text, discourse analysis seeks to understand how specific language choices contribute to the overall meaning. Researchers employ various “lenses” or “tools” to examine these statements, such as those outlined by Gee, which help uncover the ways in which language communicates, persuades, and constructs meaning.

4. Shape Reality

One of the key insights of discourse analysis is that language is not neutral; instead, it actively shapes our understanding of the world and influences social reality. Through language, we construct our identities, relationships, and knowledge systems. Discourse analysis helps researchers understand how this process works in different contexts.

5. Power Dynamics

Discourse analysis is often used to uncover how language can reflect and perpetuate power imbalances in society. For example, critical discourse analysis (CDA) examines how language can be used to assert dominance, control narratives, and marginalize certain groups.

CDA aims to deconstruct these power dynamics and challenge social inequality by bringing them to light.

Types of Discourse Analysis

There are two primary approaches to discourse analysis: language-in-use and socio-political.

The language-in-use approach focuses on the technical aspects of language, such as how grammar, syntax, and phonology are used to create meaning. The socio-political approach examines how language reflects normalized or repressive power dynamics.

1. Language-in-use Approaches to Discourse Analysis

Language-in-use approaches to discourse analysis concentrate on the linguistic features of language , including:

The aim is to understand how these aspects of language are used and manipulated in social contexts. This approach recognizes that language does not merely reflect a pre-existing social reality but actively constructs it.

For example, how conversational markers (e.g., turn-taking, overlap, exhalation, disagreement) are used to negotiate meaning and build knowledge within conversations.

“Language-in-use” is sometimes used synonymously with “ pragmatics ,” which refers to the study of how context influences the meaning of language .

This includes analyzing how listeners interpret the meaning of words and phrases based on the social context.

Analyzing language in use involves two key tasks:

• Utterance-type meaning: Studying the typical communicative functions of language forms (e.g., how a specific grammatical structure is generally used).
• Utterance-token/Situated meaning: Examining how the meaning of language forms varies depending on the specific context in which they are used.

However, the terms “discourse analysis” and “pragmatics” are not always used in the same way.

Sometimes, “discourse analysis” is reserved for analyzing how sentences in a spoken or written text work together to create meaning and define different genres (e.g., dialogues, narratives, reports).

This distinction emphasizes the role of language in shaping and being shaped by social situations.

When analyzing discourse, it’s important to consider the interplay of various linguistic elements, cultural influences, and social dynamics.

Researchers use a systematic approach, carefully examining spoken conversations, written texts, and visual media to understand how language functions within a particular context.

This involves going beyond literal meanings to uncover the hidden dimensions and power dynamics embedded in communication.

Key Concepts Related to Language-in-use:

• Context of Situation: The specific circumstances surrounding language use, including the relationships among participants, communicative purposes, and the mode of communication (spoken or written).
• Register: The variety of language used in a particular context of situation, reflecting the field (social activity), tenor (relationships between interactants), and mode (role of language).
• Genre: A recognizable and recurring communicative event characterized by its purpose, structure, and typical linguistic features (e.g., research articles, political speeches). Genres can be analyzed as a specific form of discourse analysis, focusing on recurring language use patterns.
• Intertextuality: The way in which one text incorporates, references, or alludes to other texts, either directly or indirectly. This highlights the interconnectedness of texts and how meaning is constructed through these connections.

Example Methods

• Conversation analysis : Focuses on the structure and patterns of spoken interaction. For example, this approach can be used to study how people manage turn-taking and negotiate roles during conversations. Conversation analysis often uses transcripts of conversations to examine how conversational markers, such as pauses or specific phrases, contribute to the conversation’s flow and meaning.
• Narrative analysis : Looks at how individuals construct their identities and experiences through storytelling. Researchers using this approach might analyze personal accounts of homelessness to understand how individuals integrate their experiences with societal narratives.

2. Socio-political approaches to discourse analysis

Socio-political approaches to discourse analysis are more philosophical and mainly concerned with how language constructs and sustains power dynamics in society. Although politics is a central focus, these approaches apply more broadly.

These approaches move beyond analyzing just the linguistic elements to consider the social and political implications of language use:

Critical discourse analysis

Critical discourse analysis (CDA) examines how language is used to create, maintain, and challenge power relations in society. CDA is particularly concerned with issues of social justice, inequality, and oppression.

CDA is inspired by philosopher Michel Foucault, who argued that language reflects how power is used in society.

Critical discourse analysis researchers believe that language isn’t neutral; it reflects power dynamics in society.

It aims to uncover the hidden agendas and biases that are present in everyday conversations and official communications.

Assumptions

• CDA recognizes that language isn’t just about communication; it shapes our understanding of the world and how we see reality.
• It explores how language can both reinforce and challenge the power of those in dominant positions.
• CDA often focuses on institutional discourse—the language used in settings like schools, courts, and the media—because these institutions often reflect and perpetuate broader social power dynamics.
• CDA examines the language used in media, like news coverage, to see how those in power might be misusing their position or how inequality, dominance, and pushback are portrayed in discussions of social and political topics.

For example

• CDA might be used to study how politicians use language to divide people in a campaign speech.
• It could also be used to examine how medical language can reinforce the authority of doctors over patients.

CDA researchers pay close attention to who has control over communication :

• They look at who gets to decide the time and place of a conversation, who is allowed to speak, and what topics are considered acceptable.
• They also study how grammatical choices and the structure of conversations can reflect and reinforce power dynamics. For example, in some situations, people in less powerful positions may have to speak differently than those in positions of authority.

CDA argues that understanding these subtle ways that language shapes our perceptions of power is crucial for challenging social inequality.

Discourse analysis offers a powerful lens for critically examining the intricate relationship between language, meaning, and social life.

Other examples of critial discourse analysis

• Feminist discourse analysis : Focuses specifically on how language constructs and perpetuates gender norms and ideologies. Researchers utilizing this approach might study how beauty advertisements reinforce specific beauty standards and how consumers engage with or resist these representations.
• Foucauldian discourse analysis : Inspired by the work of philosopher Michel Foucault, examines how discourse shapes knowledge, power, and social practices. This approach emphasizes the relationship between language and power, exploring how discourse constructs our understanding of the world and influences our actions.
• Ethnography of communication : Rooted in anthropology, studies communication within cultural contexts, examining the rules and norms that govern interactions within specific communities. This approach involves immersing oneself in a particular social group to understand their communication patterns, often using participant observation and interviews to collect data.

Steps for Conducting Discourse Analysis

Step 1: define the research question and select the content of analysis.

Begin with a clearly defined research question and then select a range of material that is appropriate to answer it.

Examples of clearly defined research questions

• How does media coverage of immigration policies reinforce or challenge prevailing stereotypes and power dynamics in shaping public perceptions?
• How do beauty advertisements construct and perpetuate gender norms and ideologies of beauty, and how do consumers negotiate or resist these representations?
• How do participants in family dinner conversations use language to negotiate roles, relationships, and decision-making processes?
• How do linguistic features, visual elements, and interaction patterns in online political discussions on social media platforms contribute to the polarization of political opinions?

Select the content of analysis

After developing a research question, select a range of material that is appropriate to answer it.

Discourse analysis can be applied to both large volumes of material and smaller samples, depending on the research aims and timescale.

To illustrate, consider a research project exploring how a country’s transition from a dictatorship to a democracy affected the public relations rhetoric of businesses in that country.

The researcher might decide to analyze the mission statements and marketing material from the 10 largest companies within 5 years of the regime change

Step 2: Collect information about the material production and its presentation medium

When engaging in discourse analysis, gathering information about the material production and presentation is essential for putting data into context and gaining a complete nuanced understanding.

What does “Material Production” mean?

Material production refers to the origin and creation of the text or content you are analyzing. This means finding out:

• When and where the content was created
• Who the author is
• Who published the material
• Who the intended audience is
• The historical context in which the content was created

What does “Presentation Medium” mean?

“Presentation Medium” refers to how the material is presented. This could include things like:

• The type of media used (e.g. book, newspaper, website, social media post, interview, political speech, advertisement, government document).
• The specific publication or platform where the material appeared (e.g. The New York Times, Facebook, Twitter).
• The format of the material (e.g. article, blog post, video, speech).

Example: Analyzing a speech

Let’s say you’re analyzing a speech about climate change. To understand the speech properly, you would need to know:

• Material Production:  Who wrote the speech? Is the speaker a scientist, a politician, or an activist? What is their background? When and where was the speech given?
• Presentation Medium:  Where was the speech delivered? Was it a public address, a speech to a specific group, or a presentation at a conference? Was it live-streamed or recorded?

By considering these factors, you can better understand the speaker’s perspective and motivations, as well as the potential impact of the speech.

Step 4: Identify the text producer(s) and their position(s) in discourse analysis

Identifying the text producer(s) and their position(s) is often carried out in conjunction with understanding the material production of a text (step 3).

This step involves figuring out who created the text and what perspectives and biases they might have . It’s like trying to understand where someone is coming from when they’re talking to you.

Identifying the text producer(s) and their positions is an important step towards critically analyzing a text and uncovering the hidden meanings and assumptions embedded within it.

To determine the text producer’s position, you need to examine:

• Their background, profession, and area of expertise.
• Their role in the social context of the text.
• Their relationship to other participants in the discourse.

By considering these factors, you can gain insights into the author’s perspective and potential biases.

For example, in an academic study analyzing interviews with teenagers from working-class and upper-middle-class families, the researchers considered the social and economic backgrounds of the teenagers and their interviewers.

They also acknowledged the power dynamics inherent in the interviewer-interviewee relationship, recognizing that teenagers might adapt their language based on the perceived identity of the interviewer as a “school-based” or “college-based” person.

Similarly, when analyzing workplace interactions, researchers might look at the power dynamics between managers and employees or between colleagues at different levels of seniority.

Understanding these dynamics can shed light on how language is used to negotiate power, status, and identity within specific social contexts.

Step 5: Examine the structure of the text

After figuring out the context of your data, you should analyze how the author organized their ideas and arguments to form the “structure” of the text, which provides further context.

• Locate key sections and their relationship: Look for important sections where the main ideas are presented and see how they connect to each other.
• Analyze argument presentation: Pay attention to how the author presents their arguments, using elements like headings, formatting, introductions, and conclusions.
• Identify key arguments and support: Figure out the main points the author is making and how they are backing up those points with evidence or explanations.
• Identify viewpoints and negotiation: See if the text presents different perspectives and how the author navigates between those viewpoints.

By understanding the structure, you can better grasp the author’s goals and what they are trying to say. This understanding also makes your qualitative analysis and results stronger.

Helpful tips for examining the text structure:

• Read Carefully and Take Notes: Pay close attention to the author’s main ideas and how they are organized while reading. Jot down notes on the important parts of the text and how those parts relate to one another.
• Words like “first,” “second,” and “third” might suggest a chronological order.
• Words like “however,” “on the other hand,” and “in contrast” might point to a compare/contrast structure.
• Use Graphic Organizers: Graphic organizers can be useful tools to visualize the structure of a text. Some common options include flow charts, co-occurrence matrices, Venn diagrams, and mind maps.

At the base of the pyramid lies the context . Every interview, document, or text is situated within some context, be it cultural or otherwise.

Moving up a level, we encounter the structure of these interviews, documents, or texts. While they consist of discursive statements, these statements are part of a larger rhetorical structure that’s important to understand.

At the apex of the pyramid are the statements themselves. Statements form the core of texts, and discourse analysis offers various lenses that delve deeply into these statements.

Step 6: Analyze the discursive statements within the text

Identify statements within the text that reveal underlying values, assumptions, and how the text constructs social reality.

Discursive statements are the fundamental units of meaning within a discourse.

They’re essentially the sentences or phrases that convey ideas and arguments within a text. Analyzing these statements involves dissecting them to uncover their underlying meaning and how they contribute to the overall message of the text.

To analyze discursive statements effectively, you can use different “lenses” or analytical tools. These lenses help you examine the statement from multiple perspectives and uncover hidden layers of meaning.

Here are a few examples of these lenses:

• Frame Lens : After analyzing the discursive statements, go back to the context surrounding the text. Consider if there’s any additional information that might change your initial analysis. This lens encourages you to think critically about how the context shapes the meaning of the statements.
• “Doing and Not Just Saying” Lens: Look beyond the literal meaning of the statement and consider what the speaker or writer is trying to achieve with their words. This lens helps you understand the intention behind the statement, recognizing that communication involves both explicit and implicit messages. For example, a politician might use vague language to hide contradictions between their actions and their public image.
• Stanza Lens: This lens focuses on the organization and structure of the text. Examine how sentences and paragraphs are grouped to form distinct sections or “stanzas.” Understanding this structure helps you understand how the author guides the reader’s understanding and emphasizes certain points.
• Activities Building Lens : Consider how the statements within the text contribute to specific social activities or practices. This lens encourages you to think about the broader social implications of the language used. For example, even a car’s user manual has a specific structure and uses language in a way that promotes certain activities.

Analyzing discursive statements is like peeling back the layers of an onion. Each layer reveals new insights into how language shapes meaning and understanding.

By using different analytical lenses, you can gain a deeper appreciation for the complexities of language and its role in constructing social realities.

It’s important to start by practicing the analysis of discursive statements in different types of texts, like news articles or speeches. This practice will help you refine your analytical skills and better understand how discourse operates in various contexts.

Remember, the goal is to move beyond simply describing what the text says to understanding how it constructs meaning and shapes our understanding of the world.

Step 7: Interpreting data and explaining discourse

Connect your findings to explain the essence and functionality of the discourse.

Interpreting the data requires connecting the findings from the previous steps of discourse analysis to explain the main point and purpose of the discourse.

This means taking everything learned about the discourse’s background, author, and social impact and putting it all together into a clear and organized written report.

The goal is to go beyond merely describing what the text says to understanding how it constructs meaning. This involves moving back and forth between the context and the language used.

For example, if analyzing a speech, consider the speaker’s background and their relationship to the audience.

Think about the social and historical events happening when the speech was given, and what the speaker hoped to achieve with their words.

By connecting these contextual factors to the specific language used in the speech, one can start to interpret the data and explain the speech’s essence and function.

It is important to remember that discourse analysis is about formulating hypotheses and gaining confidence in them by looking at data. Always be open to finding evidence that might contradict any hypotheses.

Step 8: Present your findings

You need to convey the results of your discourse analysis in an organized way. This may involve:

• Writing a research paper.
• Giving a presentation.
• Creating a multimedia product.

When presenting your findings, you should:

• Emphasize the relevance of your findings.
• Present a compelling case supported by evidence from your analysis.
• Consider who your audience will be and whether they are familiar with discourse analysis.
• Focus on what is new about your findings if your audience already uses discourse analysis.

Discourse analysis researchers typically disseminate research findings through:

• Conference presentations
• Journal articles
• Book chapters

It is accepted practice in discourse research to include extracts of data to demonstrate how the analysis is linked to the data. This allows readers to assess the analysis for themselves.

When presenting data in published form, it might be necessary to simplify the transcription system to make it easier for a reader to understand. One example is to provide a series of images, like a filmstrip, next to the corresponding talk.

Interpretations can also be presented by referencing line numbers. Providing readers with access to the raw data, in addition to the analysis, strengthens the plausibility of your interpretations.

Challenges of Discourse Analysis

• Complexity: Discourse analysis can be intricate because it requires a deep understanding of linguistic and social theories. This complexity may discourage some researchers from using it.
• Subjectivity: Interpretation is a significant part of discourse analysis, so different analysts may reach different conclusions when examining the same text. Subjectivity is inherent in qualitative analysis, so steps should be taken to validate results, such as peer debriefing, reflexivity, or using a mixed-method study.
• Time-Intensive: Comprehensive discourse analysis can be time-consuming, especially for newcomers. Discourse analysis involves meticulous interpretation of texts, which can be demanding for longer or more extensive materials.
• Identifying the Focus of Activity: When studying discourse in an environment where people are moving between locations, it can be difficult to determine the focus of the activity.
• Lack of Contextual Dynamism: A weakness of discourse analysis is that corpus-based methods focus on the text as a product and cannot account for the linguistic and contextual factors of discourse. Also, the lack of non-verbal aspects of communication accompanying spoken corpora is a weakness.
• Misinterpretations due to Cultural Differences:  When speakers have different native languages, they may use or interpret communicative cues differently. Researchers should be cautious of automatically treating any difference in terms of culture.
• Delimiting Discourse: It is crucial to establish boundaries for discourse analysis by defining a manageable range of sources and timeframes, but problems with delimitation are inevitable. The choices made regarding delimitation must be defended.
• Accounting for All Discourses: A challenge is that a given discourse cannot be entirely separated from all other discourses. Discourses are ordered and scaled in relation to one another.

Validating Results in Discourse Analysis

To ensure trustworthiness and rigor in discourse analysis, researchers employ various strategies like reflexivity and transparency.

• Reflexivity involves acknowledging the researcher’s inherent subjectivity and how personal experiences and perspectives can influence data interpretation.
• Transparency emphasizes documenting the research process, including rationale for coding, theme development, and any modifications to the analytical approach. This transparency enables others to comprehend the analysis and evaluate its credibility.

Here are some practical strategies to incorporate reflexivity and transparency in thematic analysis:

• Reflexive Journal: Researchers maintain a journal to record their thoughts, assumptions, and potential biases. This journal acts as a log of the researcher’s evolving understanding of the data and assists in recognizing potential blind spots.
• Team-Based Analysis: Collaboration involving multiple researchers can enhance reflexivity through diverse perspectives and interpretations of data. Discussing coding and theme development as a team allows researchers to challenge assumptions, ensuring a comprehensive analysis.
• Articulating the Analytical Process: When presenting thematic analysis findings, researchers should thoroughly detail their methods, including the reasoning behind coding, theme development, and challenges during analysis. This transparency helps readers understand the steps taken to ensure rigor and trustworthiness.

Researchers should document all decisions made during the research process and demonstrate how the analysis is linked to the collected data.

The analysis should offer a plausible account of the data, be coherent in explaining occurrences, and produce fruitful outcomes that contribute to knowledge.

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• Discourse & Society  
• Critical Discourse Studies