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What is an Annotation?

• Why Do an Annotated Bibliography?
• What Should be Included in the Annotation?
• What Format Should I Use for the Citations?
• Evaluating Sources
• Summative Annotations
• Evaluative Annotations
• Examples from the Web
• Additional Resources
• University of Washington Libraries
• Library Guides
• Annotated Bibliographies

Annotated Bibliographies: What is an Annotation?

An annotation summarizes the essential ideas contained in a document, reporting the author's thesis and main points as well as how they relate to your own ideas or thesis. There are two types of annotations: summative and evaluative (see examples under the 'Types of Annotations' tab on this guide). Annotations are typically brief (one paragraph) but may be longer depending on the requirements of your assignment.

If you are creating an annotated bibliography for a class assignment, check with your instructor to determine the citation format, length and the type of annotations you will be writing.    

Remember, your annotation should show that you have done more than simply describe what is in the source!

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How to Write an Annotated Bibliography

Writing annotations.

• Introduction
• New RefWorks
• Formatting Citations
• Sample Annotated Bibliographies

An annotation is a brief note following each citation listed on an annotated bibliography.  The goal is to briefly summarize the source and/or explain why it is important for a topic.  They are typically a single concise paragraph, but might be longer if you are summarizing and evaluating.

Annotations can be written in a variety of different ways and it’s important to consider the style you are going to use.  Are you simply summarizing the sources, or evaluating them?  How does the source influence your understanding of the topic?  You can follow any style you want if you are writing for your own personal research process, but consult with your professor if this is an assignment for a class.

Annotation Styles

• Combined Informative/Evaluative Style - This style is recommended by the library as it combines all the styles to provide a more complete view of a source.  The annotation should explain the value of the source for the overall research topic by providing a summary combined with an analysis of the source.  

Aluedse, O. (2006). Bullying in schools: A form of child abuse in schools.  Educational Research Quarterly ,  30 (1), 37.

The author classifies bullying in schools as a “form of child abuse,” and goes well beyond the notion that schoolyard bullying is “just child’s play.” The article provides an in-depth definition of bullying, and explores the likelihood that school-aged bullies may also experience difficult lives as adults. The author discusses the modern prevalence of bullying in school systems, the effects of bullying, intervention strategies, and provides an extensive list of resources and references.

Statistics included provide an alarming realization that bullying is prevalent not only in the United States, but also worldwide. According to the author, “American schools harbor approximately 2.1 million bullies and 2.7 million victims.” The author references the National Association of School Psychologists and quotes, “Thus, one in seven children is a bully or a target of bullying.” A major point of emphasis centers around what has always been considered a “normal part of growing up” versus the levels of actual abuse reached in today’s society.

The author concludes with a section that addresses intervention strategies for school administrators, teachers, counselors, and school staff. The concept of school staff helping build students’ “social competence” is showcased as a prevalent means of preventing and reducing this growing social menace. Overall, the article is worthwhile for anyone interested in the subject matter, and provides a wealth of resources for researching this topic of growing concern.

(Renfrow & Teuton, 2008)

• Informative Style -  Similar to an abstract, this style focuses on the summarizing the source.  The annotation should identify the hypothesis, results, and conclusions presented by the source.

Plester, B., Wood, C, & Bell, V. (2008). Txt msg n school literacy: Does texting and knowledge of text abbreviations adversely affect children's literacy attainment? Literacy , 42(3), 137-144.

Reports on two studies that investigated the relationship between children's texting behavior, their knowledge of text abbreviations, and their school attainment in written language skills. In Study One, 11 to 12 year-old children reported their texting behavior and translated a standard English sentence into a text message and vice versa. In Study Two, children's performance on writing measures were examined more specifically, spelling proficiency was also assessed, and KS2 Writing scores were obtained. Positive correlations between spelling ability and performance on the translation exercise were found, and group-based comparisons based on the children's writing scores also showed that good writing attainment was associated with greater use of texting abbreviations (textisms), although the direction of this association is not clear. Overall, these findings suggest that children's knowledge of textisms is not associated with poor written language outcomes for children in this age range. 

(Beach et al., 2009)

• Evaluative Style - This style analyzes and critically evaluates the source.  The annotation should comment on the source's the strengths, weaknesses, and how it relates to the overall research topic.

Amott, T. (1993). Caught in the Crisis: Women in the U.S. Economy Today . New York: Monthly Review Press.

A very readable (140 pp) economic analysis and information book which I am currently considering as a required collateral assignment in Economics 201. Among its many strengths is a lucid connection of "The Crisis at Home" with the broader, macroeconomic crisis of the U.S. working class (which various other authors have described as the shrinking middle class or the crisis of de-industrialization).

(Papadantonakis, 1996)

• Indicative Style - This style of annotation identifies the main theme and lists the significant topics included in the source.  Usually no specific details are given beyond the topic list . 

Example: 

Gambell, T.J., & Hunter, D. M. (1999). Rethinking gender differences in literacy. Canadian Journal of Education , 24(1) 1-16.

Five explanations are offered for recently assessed gender differences in the literacy achievement of male and female students in Canada and other countries. The explanations revolve around evaluative bias, home socialization, role and societal expectations, male psychology, and equity policy.

(Kerka & Imel, 2004)

Beach, R., Bigelow, M., Dillon, D., Dockter, J., Galda, L., Helman, L., . . . Janssen, T. (2009). Annotated Bibliography of Research in the Teaching of English.  Research in the Teaching of English,   44 (2), 210-241. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27784357

Kerka, S., & Imel, S. (2004). Annotated bibliography: Women and literacy.  Women's Studies Quarterly,  32 (1), 258-271. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/233645656?accountid=2909

Papadantonakis, K. (1996). Selected Annotated Bibliography for Economists and Other Social Scientists.  Women's Studies Quarterly,   24 (3/4), 233-238. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40004384

Renfrow, T.G., & Teuton, L.M. (2008). Schoolyard bullying: Peer victimization an annotated bibliography. Community & Junior College Libraries, 14(4), 251-­275. doi:10.1080/02763910802336407

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Thesis and Dissertation Guide

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Annotated Bibs

• What is an annotated bibliography?
• Columbia College Model
• Tools to help

Annotated bibliographies are particularly helpful when doing research that requires keeping track of multiple articles and resources, especially if it is over an extended period of time.

The  Cornell University Library  has  defined an annotated bibliography as :

“a list of citations to books, articles, and documents. Each citation is followed by a brief (usually about 150 words) descriptive and evaluative paragraph, the annotation. The purpose of the annotation is to inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy, and quality of the sources cited.”  Their annotated bibliography LibGuide may provide you with additional information, if you're inclined to  check it out . 

In English, this means you are creating a paragraph that others may read to get a general idea of what your sources are about. The hardest part is being concise with your information. Annotations take practice but once you get the hang of  it, they  are easy.

Purdue Owl also has a section explaining Annotated Bibliographies , why you'd use them, samples and examples that you may find useful. 

• EXAMPLE Annotated Bib
• Annotated Bibliography Worksheet You can use this as a tool to help with creating an annotated bibliography

Here are steps to follow for your annotated bib to make your life a bit easier:

A: Talk about the author. (1 sentence (or combine with part B))     

Is this a professor? Maybe this is a professional in the field? Or is this person a hobbyist? Tell the audience about the author in the first part of the annotation.

B: Explain what the article is about. (1-3 sentences)

Tell the audience what is in the article. This is the most difficult part of the annotation because it requires you to be very succinct. Don’t rewrite the article; just write the base facts and important notes about the article here.

C: Explain how this article illuminates your bibliography topic. (1-2 sentences)

What about this article makes it relevant to your topic? Why did you select it? What pertinent bit of information makes this article stand out among the others? This should be more specific than what you wrote in section B.

D: Compare or contrast this work with another you have cited. (1-2 sentences)

How does this specific article relate to another article in your annotated bibliography? Do they agree or not? Why not? What makes them unique?

Here's a sample of what this might look like:

The University of North Colorado evaluated their program via student surveys and realized students could find sources but were not reading them properly, so they changed their library curriculum. This a succinct article that well establishes their goals, how they gathered feedback, and how they used the feedback in real and meaningful ways. Overall their sessions were useful, and the data was sticking, but they found ways to improve their instruction through the assessments. [This covers part A & B]

This article shows that even with instruction there are gaps that needed to be addressed (and possibly still do). Focuses on fixing curriculum based on research, unlike other literature encountered to date. The others theorize and may make suggestions but do not necessarily make any changes. [This covers part C & D for my topic.]

McCartin, L. F., Evers, S., & Markowski, B. (2019). Student perceptions of information literacy skills and curriculum before and after completing a research assignment. The Journal of Academic Librarianship , 45 (3), 262–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2019.03.009

Another model that may be useful to you comes from Columbia College in Vancouver . They are also in MLA style so keep that in mind when looking at their citations. Their model is similar to what is described in the previous tabs but is a shorter evaluative summary. We recommend viewing their page and its resources in its entirety.

From the annotations box:

"An  annotated bibliography  is a list of citations for various books, articles, and other sources on a topic. The annotated bibliography looks like a Works Cited page but includes an annotation after each source cited. An annotation is a short summary and/or critical evaluation of a source. Annotated bibliographies can be part of a larger research project, or can be a stand-alone report in itself.

Types of Annotations

 A  summary annotation  describes the source by answering the following questions: who wrote the document, what the document discusses, when and where was the document written, why was the document produced, and how was it provided to the public. The focus is on description. 

 An  evaluative annotation  includes a summary as listed above but also critically assesses the work for accuracy, relevance, and quality. Evaluative annotations can help you learn about your topic, develop a thesis statement, decide if a specific source will be useful for your assignment, and determine if there is enough valid information available to complete your project. The focus is on description and evaluation."

• Annotated Bibliography Worksheet

Bibliographic Management Tools help researchers organize and manage their research. They may be able to help you format papers and create footnotes and bibliographies.

• ESU has loaded the  EndNote  bibliographic management software on all general access computer labs on campus. You can use this software to save sources and create bibliographies in the various standard formats like MLA and APA.  It is not usually a desktop icon, so you'll have to look for it in the program list or search programs and files for "endnote". Here's a  link to their quickstart guide .

There are also many citation building tools available on the web. These tools can be useful but you should always check your citations against the appropriate style guide to be sure the all the information is included and formatted correctly for that style.

• Mendeley : free social software that allows you to manage and share research papers, this also creates and tracks citations, allows you to save your PDFs in one place, and also has a mobile app and desktop download.  It does a lot more, and is incredibly useful. This is probably my personal favorite because it does an amazing amount and it's free . There's also  this amazing LibGuide  that walks you through how to use it that's really useful.
• Zotero :  this is fairly identical to Mendeley, it's just a different interface. It's also free! Pick one and run with it!

More General Citation Creators:

• Citationsy : this requires a login, but allows you to build a reference list quickly and easily all in one place. This is very easy to use. Don't forget to check for accuracy. Has an extension in some browsers, like Firefox.
• Citation Generator : cloud based, ad-free, quick, easy to use and free. You can type your document and cite as you go - it's easy. Or copy and paste your paper in and create your citations after.
• Son of Citation Machine : an interactive tool to help create reference citations

Video Tutorial

Hit the "i" on the bottom for chapter markings for Literature Reviews, Annotated Bibliographies and Bibliographic Management Tools (managing your citations). Jump to where you need to go!

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What is an Annotation?

• Annotated Bibliographies
• Evaluating Sources
• Summative Annotations
• Evaluative Annotations
• Examples from the Web
• Citation Help
• Last Updated: Oct 4, 2024 11:43 AM

In nearly all forms of academic writing, you will be asked to do some form of research. But going back and writing about long articles or textbook readings can become frustrating if you haven’t left any kind of record behind. Annotation is particularly helpful in these situations. Whether your research consists of written text, images, or even videos, you should always be sure to annotate.

According to  the Writers’ Center at Eastern Washington University , annotations are “any action that deliberately interacts with a text to enhance the reader’s understanding of, recall of, and reaction to the text. Sometimes called ‘close reading,’” they include markings, writings, and highlights that you should cover your texts with before, during, and after you have finished with your readings. As you annotate, engage in a conversation with the text by asking questions, interpreting important ideas, and giving your opinions and tentative conclusions even if the big picture isn’t yet clear.

Reasons to Annotate

• To connect and associate material to info you already know,
• To sort information from most to least important,
• To emphasize new concepts, vocabulary or quotes, and
• To digest, internalize, and recall your readings with ease.

Active vs. Passive Annotation

In passive, you underline and mark; in active you ask, opine, and summarize. Using a combination of both will get you further!

Annotating vs. Note-Taking

Annotating is different from note-taking. Note-taking mostly summarizes a text whereas annotating will engage the text at a more critical level. The examples on this page use both passive and active forms of annotation.

Best Practices for Annotation

• Make sure the textbook or articles belong to you prior to annotation; if this is not the case photocopy the readings so you can make marks on the copies comfortably.
• Color-code your highlighting; use several colors to mean different things or to keep important ideas separate.
• Use numbers to identify the main concepts. Numbering the different parts of the paper like main points can break up a larger article into manageable pieces.
• Underline; circle key words, jargon, or vocabulary; use asterisks to identify special words.
• Write summaries on the margins, or comments on the top of the pages. Utilize the margins!
• Make sure your marks and notes are consistent throughout each page; this will make your annotation quickerand your comprehension and internalization more effective.
• Personal reactions, summaries, questions, or definitions are encouraged with annotation!
• Draw or doodle to help visualize the content of the text.

Note:  The Learning Hub encourages the use of annotations, but how you approach it is entirely up to you. Pick the methods that will allow you to get the most out of your reading so you can retain what you’ve read and interact with the text on a deeper level.

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Annotated Bibliography Samples

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Below you will find sample annotations from annotated bibliographies, each with a different research project. Remember that the annotations you include in your own bibliography should reflect your research project and/or the guidelines of your assignment.

As mentioned elsewhere in this resource, depending on the purpose of your bibliography, some annotations may summarize, some may assess or evaluate a source, and some may reflect on the source’s possible uses for the project at hand. Some annotations may address all three of these steps. Consider the purpose of your annotated bibliography and/or your instructor’s directions when deciding how much information to include in your annotations.

Please keep in mind that all your text, including the write-up beneath the citation, must be indented so that the author's last name is the only text that is flush left.

Sample MLA Annotation

Lamott, Anne. Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life . Anchor Books, 1995.

Lamott's book offers honest advice on the nature of a writing life, complete with its insecurities and failures. Taking a humorous approach to the realities of being a writer, the chapters in Lamott's book are wry and anecdotal and offer advice on everything from plot development to jealousy, from perfectionism to struggling with one's own internal critic.

In the process, Lamott includes writing exercises designed to be both productive and fun. Lamott offers sane advice for those struggling with the anxieties of writing, but her main project seems to be offering the reader a reality check regarding writing, publishing, and struggling with one's own imperfect humanity in the process. Rather than a practical handbook to producing and/or publishing, this text is indispensable because of its honest perspective, its down-to-earth humor, and its encouraging approach.

Chapters in this text could easily be included in the curriculum for a writing class. Several of the chapters in Part 1 address the writing process and would serve to generate discussion on students' own drafting and revising processes. Some of the writing exercises would also be appropriate for generating classroom writing exercises. Students should find Lamott's style both engaging and enjoyable.

In the sample annotation above, the writer includes three paragraphs: a summary, an evaluation of the text, and a reflection on its applicability to his/her own research, respectively.

For information on formatting MLA citations, see our MLA 9th Edition (2021) Formatting and Style Guide .

Sample APA Annotation

Ehrenreich, B. (2001). Nickel and dimed: On (not) getting by in America . Henry Holt and Company.

In this book of nonfiction based on the journalist's experiential research, Ehrenreich attempts to ascertain whether it is currently possible for an individual to live on a minimum-wage in America. Taking jobs as a waitress, a maid in a cleaning service, and a Walmart sales employee, the author summarizes and reflects on her work, her relationships with fellow workers, and her financial struggles in each situation.

An experienced journalist, Ehrenreich is aware of the limitations of her experiment and the ethical implications of her experiential research tactics and reflects on these issues in the text. The author is forthcoming about her methods and supplements her experiences with scholarly research on her places of employment, the economy, and the rising cost of living in America. Ehrenreich’s project is timely, descriptive, and well-researched.

The annotation above both summarizes and assesses the book in the citation. The first paragraph provides a brief summary of the author's project in the book, covering the main points of the work. The second paragraph points out the project’s strengths and evaluates its methods and presentation. This particular annotation does not reflect on the source’s potential importance or usefulness for this person’s own research.

For information on formatting APA citations, see our APA Formatting and Style Guide .

Sample Chicago Manual of Style Annotation

Davidson, Hilda Ellis. Roles of the Northern Goddess . London: Routledge, 1998.

Davidson's book provides a thorough examination of the major roles filled by the numerous pagan goddesses of Northern Europe in everyday life, including their roles in hunting, agriculture, domestic arts like weaving, the household, and death. The author discusses relevant archaeological evidence, patterns of symbol and ritual, and previous research. The book includes a number of black and white photographs of relevant artifacts.

This annotation includes only one paragraph, a summary of the book. It provides a concise description of the project and the book's project and its major features.

For information on formatting Chicago Style citations, see our Chicago Manual of Style resources.

How to Write an Abstract : Annotations

• How to Format a Research Abstract MLA Style with Examples
• Annotations

What is an Annotated Bibliography?

An annotated bibliography is a collection of brief descriptions and critical summaries of particular works on a topic. It enables the writer to review their resources before incorporating them into their research. Annotations may be descriptive, critical, or both. A descriptive annotation "describes" what is discussed in the book or article, while a critical annotation attempts to evaluate or criticize the work from an informed point of view.

Writing Annotations: Step by Step

The following approach to annotating will help you to use your reading time to best advantage:

1. Briefly familiarize yourself with the contents of the book or article. Examining the table of contents, the foreword, and the introduction can be helpful. 2. Read as much of the book or article as is necessary to understand its content. 3. Outline or make notes of the information you think should be incorporated in the annotation. 4. Write a paragraph that covers the contents of the book or article.

Elements of an Annotation

An annotation may include

1. a bibliographic citation (always!) 2. qualifications of the author(s). 3. overview of the thesis, theories, and major ideas. 4. identifies the intended audience (i.e. who the article is intended for). 5. identifies bias or point of view of author. 6. comments on the relationship to other relevant and or current sources 7. reports on the findings, results, and conclusions (if available) 8. notes special features (e.g. charts, glossary, illustrations, maps, survey instruments, etc.).

Form of Annotations

Length: Annotations vary in length. While some are only a few sentences, others can be very lengthy. Typically annotations do not exceed 150 to 200 words.

Language and Use of Vocabulary: Use the vocabulary of the author as much as possible to convey the ideas and conclusions of the author. In these cases where you decide to include a quotation from the source, place it within quotation marks. Avoid introducing annotations with unnecessary and/or redundant phrases like "The author states," "This article concerns," etc.

Format: Annotations should be one single paragraph. Avoid writing a paragraph that is nothing more than a series of unconnected sentences summarizing separate ideas, arguments, and conclusions.

Examples of Annotations

Adapted from: Katz, W.A., "Annotations," in Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science (Vol. 1; New York: Marcel Dekker, 1968), pp. 427-428, and ERIC Processing Manual: Section VI. Abstracting/ Annotating. (Bethesda, MD: U.S. Educational Resources Information Center, ERIC Processing and Reference Facility, ED 219 087).

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What’s on Your Bib? Annotated Bibliographies, Changing by Degrees

• December 20, 2019
• Donna Graham, PhD, and John Bryan, DBA

The purpose of this article is to present an overview of why annotated bibliographies are needed in higher education, especially in doctoral education programs. The necessity for emerging scholars to build an annotated bibliography is paramount to the development of their research study. However, there are numerous types of annotated bibliographies. This article will discuss the different types of annotations and which format best facilitates the development of a ­­­­dissertation.

An annotated bibliography is a list of references supplemented with an analysis of the content of the source to reflect the utility of that source for a specific purpose (Capella University Writing Center, 2008; Stacks et al., 2018). The analysis can be focused notes, facts, or a critique of the quality or efficacy of the source. The reference information should include enough information that the reader can locate the source.

The purpose of the annotations always remains the same. An annotated bibliography develops, supports, and provides argumentation for developing a thesis. However, the annotated bibliography at the doctoral level is often used to prepare for writing a literature review and developing a research design as part of a dissertation. In this article, we present the need for doctoral annotations to be analytical in design, in order to facilitate dissertation writing.

Annotations in Higher Education

A bachelor’s degree provides foundational knowledge of broad and specific topical areas (U.S. Department of Education, 2008a). A bachelor’s-level annotated bibliography may gather foundational information from reviewed articles, books, and other sources. In some respects, the bachelor’s-level annotated bibliography is like a collection of brief book reports that describe what article, book, or other source contributed to a discussion of the theme. Annotation bibliographies at the undergraduate level should relate to a specific topic. The annotations should explain how the reviewed source relates to the topic. Karakey (2012) noted that, at a minimum, an annotated bibliography should identify the thesis and main claims or arguments of the source along with the relevance of the source to the topic of the annotated bibliography.

A master’s degree provides knowledge of broad and specific topical areas, often for application, and may be classified as professional or research-based degrees (U.S. Department of Education, 2008b). The master’s-level annotated bibliography typically gathers foundational information from reviewed articles, books, and other sources, including or adding relevant nuances for application. They often include foundational theories, models, or concepts and relevant topical background to demonstrate scope of knowledge of the topic (Torpey & Terrell, 2015).

A doctoral dissertation adds to the academic body of knowledge, including empirical research and foundational theories, models, or concepts, reflecting broad and specific topical areas (U.S. Department of Education, 2008c).   A doctoral-level annotated bibliography differs from an undergraduate and graduate annotated bibliography in that the annotation at this level includes elements of the research methodology, design, and foundational literature. Typically, a doctoral degree annotation should include sample size and strategy, assumptions and limitations, and opportunities for future research.

Types of Annotation

There are at least two major types of annotated bibliographies: descriptive and analytical (UMUCL, 2019). A descriptive annotation, sometimes referred to as a summative annotation, provides an overview or summary of the source. Descriptive annotations do not analyze the findings of the content. However, they should describe the methodology and design. These types of annotations may be stand-alone entries, or they may be comparative, referencing the other entries to give a total picture of how different articles on the topic are in conversation with each other.

An analytical, also referred to as evaluative, annotation summarizes the content, as well as analyzes the findings of the research. The author should present a narrative that includes the quality of the source and the argumentative position of the researcher. Length of annotations can also vary, from approximately 150-word paragraph to one- or two-page annotations, depending on the purpose. Doctoral level annotations typically are longer entries, given the depth of the annotation and analysis.

Annotation Format

Descriptive annotations often include three paragraphs, one for each summary element; analytical annotations are longer, depending on the purpose of the evaluation. Each annotation is for one source and should interpret the article within the theme or context. In a descriptive annotated bibliography, the annotation for each source should begin with a summary of the context and the key points of that source. The topic, method, design, foundational theory, model, or concept, and the conclusions of the study are included in this section.

Table 2 may be useful as a guide for the types of data a researcher might collect prior to drafting an annotated bibliography or literature review for an article or dissertation.

Table 2: Examples of columns that may be included in a data collection tool for an annotated bibliography

Knowing the purpose of the annotation is essential to compiling data from articles, books, and other sources for use in an annotated bibliography or literature review. If the purpose is to substantiate the need for a proposed empirical study or to craft a literature review for a dissertation, then more detail will be useful.

Dr. Donna Graham is a university professor and dissertation chair.   Dr. Graham holds a B.A. in Psychology and Education from Rosemont College, a M.S. in Counseling from Villanova University, a M.Ed. in Educational Technology from Rosemont College and a Doctorate in Philosophy from Capella University. 

Dr. John Bryan is a university professor, editor, and dissertation chair. Dr. Bryan holds a BA in Chemistry from University of California, San Diego, an MBA in Operations and Marketing from Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey,  and a DBA in Leadership from the University of Phoenix.

References:

Capella University. (2008). Annotated Bibliographies . Minneapolis, MN: Self. Retrieved from www.capella.edu/interactivemedia/onlineWritingCenter/downloads/annotatedBibliography.pdf

Kansas University. (2017). Bibliographie s. Retrieved from http://writing.ku.edu/bibliographies

Karakey, G. (2012). Annotated bibliography: Why you should prepare one [weblog]. Retrieved May 20, 2018 from karakey.com/phdadvice/annotated-bibliography-why-you-should-prepare-one/

Stacks, G., Karper, E., Bisignani, D., & Brizee, A. (2018). Annotated bibliographies . Purdue University. Retrieved May 20, 2018 from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/614/01/

Torpey, E., & Terrell, D.(2015). Should I get a master’s degree? Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/careeroutlook/2015/article/should-i-get-a-masters-degree.htm

University of New England. (n.d.). Writing an annotated bibliography . Retrieved from https://aso-resources.une.edu.au/assignment-types/writing-an-annotated-bibliography/

U.S. Department of Education. (2008a). Structure of the U.S. Education System: Bachelor’s Degrees . U.S. Department of Education: self. Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/about//offices/list/ous/international/usnei/bachelors.doc

U.S. Department of Education. (2008b). Structure of the U.S. Education System: Master’s Degrees . U.S. Department of Education: self. Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/about//offices/list/ous/international/usnei/master.doc

U.S. Department of Education. (2008c). Structure of the U.S. Education System: Research Doctorate Degrees . U.S. Department of Education: self. Retrieved from www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/doctorate.doc

University of Maryland University College Library (UMUCL). (2019). How to write an annotated bibliography. Largo, MD: Self. Retrieved from https://sites.umuc.edu/library/libhow/bibliography_tutorial.cfm

University Writing Center. (2018). Annotated bibliographies . Texas A&M University: self. Retrieved May 29, 2018 from http://writingcenter.tamu.edu/Students/Writing-Speaking-Guides/Alphabetical-List-of-Guides/Academic-Writing/Annotated-Bibliographies

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• Dissertation

How to Write a Thesis or Dissertation Introduction

Published on September 7, 2022 by Tegan George and Shona McCombes. Revised on November 21, 2023.

The introduction is the first section of your thesis or dissertation , appearing right after the table of contents . Your introduction draws your reader in, setting the stage for your research with a clear focus, purpose, and direction on a relevant topic .

Your introduction should include:

• Your topic, in context: what does your reader need to know to understand your thesis dissertation?
• Your focus and scope: what specific aspect of the topic will you address?
• The relevance of your research: how does your work fit into existing studies on your topic?
• Your questions and objectives: what does your research aim to find out, and how?
• An overview of your structure: what does each section contribute to the overall aim?

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Table of contents

How to start your introduction, topic and context, focus and scope, relevance and importance, questions and objectives, overview of the structure, thesis introduction example, introduction checklist, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about introductions.

Although your introduction kicks off your dissertation, it doesn’t have to be the first thing you write — in fact, it’s often one of the very last parts to be completed (just before your abstract ).

It’s a good idea to write a rough draft of your introduction as you begin your research, to help guide you. If you wrote a research proposal , consider using this as a template, as it contains many of the same elements. However, be sure to revise your introduction throughout the writing process, making sure it matches the content of your ensuing sections.

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Begin by introducing your dissertation topic and giving any necessary background information. It’s important to contextualize your research and generate interest. Aim to show why your topic is timely or important. You may want to mention a relevant news item, academic debate, or practical problem.

After a brief introduction to your general area of interest, narrow your focus and define the scope of your research.

You can narrow this down in many ways, such as by:

• Geographical area
• Time period
• Demographics or communities
• Themes or aspects of the topic

It’s essential to share your motivation for doing this research, as well as how it relates to existing work on your topic. Further, you should also mention what new insights you expect it will contribute.

Start by giving a brief overview of the current state of research. You should definitely cite the most relevant literature, but remember that you will conduct a more in-depth survey of relevant sources in the literature review section, so there’s no need to go too in-depth in the introduction.

Depending on your field, the importance of your research might focus on its practical application (e.g., in policy or management) or on advancing scholarly understanding of the topic (e.g., by developing theories or adding new empirical data). In many cases, it will do both.

Ultimately, your introduction should explain how your thesis or dissertation:

• Helps solve a practical or theoretical problem
• Addresses a gap in the literature
• Builds on existing research
• Proposes a new understanding of your topic

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Perhaps the most important part of your introduction is your questions and objectives, as it sets up the expectations for the rest of your thesis or dissertation. How you formulate your research questions and research objectives will depend on your discipline, topic, and focus, but you should always clearly state the central aim of your research.

If your research aims to test hypotheses , you can formulate them here. Your introduction is also a good place for a conceptual framework that suggests relationships between variables .

• Conduct surveys to collect data on students’ levels of knowledge, understanding, and positive/negative perceptions of government policy.
• Determine whether attitudes to climate policy are associated with variables such as age, gender, region, and social class.
• Conduct interviews to gain qualitative insights into students’ perspectives and actions in relation to climate policy.

To help guide your reader, end your introduction with an outline  of the structure of the thesis or dissertation to follow. Share a brief summary of each chapter, clearly showing how each contributes to your central aims. However, be careful to keep this overview concise: 1-2 sentences should be enough.

I. Introduction

Human language consists of a set of vowels and consonants which are combined to form words. During the speech production process, thoughts are converted into spoken utterances to convey a message. The appropriate words and their meanings are selected in the mental lexicon (Dell & Burger, 1997). This pre-verbal message is then grammatically coded, during which a syntactic representation of the utterance is built.

Speech, language, and voice disorders affect the vocal cords, nerves, muscles, and brain structures, which result in a distorted language reception or speech production (Sataloff & Hawkshaw, 2014). The symptoms vary from adding superfluous words and taking pauses to hoarseness of the voice, depending on the type of disorder (Dodd, 2005). However, distortions of the speech may also occur as a result of a disease that seems unrelated to speech, such as multiple sclerosis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

This study aims to determine which acoustic parameters are suitable for the automatic detection of exacerbations in patients suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) by investigating which aspects of speech differ between COPD patients and healthy speakers and which aspects differ between COPD patients in exacerbation and stable COPD patients.

Checklist: Introduction

I have introduced my research topic in an engaging way.

I have provided necessary context to help the reader understand my topic.

I have clearly specified the focus of my research.

I have shown the relevance and importance of the dissertation topic .

I have clearly stated the problem or question that my research addresses.

I have outlined the specific objectives of the research .

I have provided an overview of the dissertation’s structure .

You've written a strong introduction for your thesis or dissertation. Use the other checklists to continue improving your dissertation.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

Research bias

• Survivorship bias
• Self-serving bias
• Availability heuristic
• Halo effect
• Hindsight bias
• Deep learning
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• Supervised vs. unsupervised learning

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The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.

They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .

Scope of research is determined at the beginning of your research process , prior to the data collection stage. Sometimes called “scope of study,” your scope delineates what will and will not be covered in your project. It helps you focus your work and your time, ensuring that you’ll be able to achieve your goals and outcomes.

Defining a scope can be very useful in any research project, from a research proposal to a thesis or dissertation . A scope is needed for all types of research: quantitative , qualitative , and mixed methods .

To define your scope of research, consider the following:

• Budget constraints or any specifics of grant funding
• Your proposed timeline and duration
• Specifics about your population of study, your proposed sample size , and the research methodology you’ll pursue
• Any inclusion and exclusion criteria
• Any anticipated control , extraneous , or confounding variables that could bias your research if not accounted for properly.

Cite this Scribbr article

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George, T. & McCombes, S. (2023, November 21). How to Write a Thesis or Dissertation Introduction. Scribbr. Retrieved September 30, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/introduction-structure/

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How To Plan Your Bachelor's Thesis

Would you be so kind to give us a little intro on yourself.

I am Vanessa, the longest standing member of user support at MindNode and I also do quality assurance. I grew up in Bavaria, in a little town near Munich at a very pretty lake.

I live in Vienna for 13 years now and first studied physics and later socioeconomics. Then, I slipped into the IT world with a job at MindNode which I started in my last bachelor semester in socioeconomics because I still had to finish my bachelor thesis. This was like the perfect opportunity.

When and how did you discover mind mapping?

My first experience with mind mapping was when I was 12 or 13. My best friend and I sort of created a mind map of all our friends and their relationships, who’s into whom, and all of that kind of very important stuff when you’re 13. So that’s the first thing that comes to mind when I think of my first contact with mind mapping. And then, I guess it really was with starting my job at MindNode. And now, they’re omnipresent.

How have you used it ever since?

I use it a lot for taking notes during meetings and for planning workflows. I now also have a packing list for various vacations in the form of a mind map. Also, every big project, like moving houses or starting something new, always starts with a mind map and then ends up as several mind maps.

What kind of workflows do you use mind mapping for?

One that we've documented over time is the onboarding of new customers and new employees, and we use MindNode specifically for support. We outline the different phases of the onboarding process, what tasks people should be able to handle independently by a certain point, and where they can find all the necessary information.

As you said, you’re using mind mapping for business purposes as well as personally. How has it helped you, especially beyond just packing lists for travel?

The biggest help was when I was writing my bachelor’s thesis. I started by outlining the thesis using a mind map, which was really useful because I didn’t have a clear sense of the structure at first. The mind map made it easy to move chapters around and adjust the flow, so I could see what made the most sense logically.

I also used mind maps to organize quotes from the books I was reading, adding notes with references like book titles, page numbers, and so on. Since I’m a big procrastinator, I had gathered all this material but hadn’t written much. As the deadline approached, I ended up writing about three-quarters of the thesis in one weekend. The mind map was a lifesaver—its search feature made it easy to find related quotes and ideas and piece everything together.

In the end, I got an A, and my professor complimented how well-structured the thesis was. I knew the mind map had made all the difference in helping me organize and rearrange my ideas, something that wouldn’t have been possible with a regular document.

You mentioned that search is one of your favorite features. Are there any other particular features in MindNode that you really enjoy?

Yes, absolutely! I would have loved to have the ability to edit the outline back when I was writing my thesis, and now that’s possible, which is great. Another feature I truly enjoy is the ability to add notes. It’s so helpful to have the main idea in the node and then use notes to go deeper without cluttering the mind map. For example, when I was working on my thesis, I could keep the key points in the node and add all the repetitive details — like who wrote the book and page numbers — in the notes. That kept things tidy.

The outline view is another feature I love. It’s super helpful to switch between the mind map and outline view, letting me scroll through the content and see how it would flow as a text. It’s great for organizing ideas and figuring out the right structure.

Oh, and keyboard shortcuts! They might not be a “feature” in the traditional sense, but once I started using them, everything became so much faster and more efficient.

What’s your favorite shortcut?

I think my favorite is the shortcut for notes, and I’m laughing because we’ve changed it two or three times since I’ve been here! I actually forgot it after the last update, but we recently brought it back to the original, which is Shift-Command-K.

It’s funny because even though the logic behind the shortcut could be different, a lot of users had developed muscle memory for the original one. We got so many emails from people saying they couldn’t open notes because they were so used to the old shortcut. So, eventually, we went back to it to keep our users happy!

On which device do you use MindNode the most on, and why?

I most like to use it on the iPad, which is such a common answer, but for a good reason! Every time I do, I think, “Oh, this is great!” But since I spend so much time on my MacBook, I mostly end up using it there. On the iPad, the ability to tap directly on the screen and interact with the mind map makes it feel more alive and engaging.

Final question, Vanessa: What makes your creativity spark?

Having enough time and not feeling under pressure really helps me. When I can focus without being overwhelmed by responsibilities, creativity flows more easily. I try to carve out dedicated time, which creates the mental space needed for creative thinking.

Being in nature is another big inspiration for me. It helps me stay present and clear my mind of distractions. The beauty and complexity of the natural world often spark my creativity and lead to new ideas.

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