research topics on zoonosis

• Open access
• Published: 16 July 2021

Identifying the research gap of zoonotic disease in displacement: a systematic review

• Dorien Hanneke Braam   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6011-2392 1 ,
• Freya Louise Jephcott 1 &
• James Lionel Norman Wood 1  

Global Health Research and Policy volume  6 , Article number:  25 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

7255 Accesses

12 Citations

17 Altmetric

Metrics details

Outbreaks of zoonotic diseases that transmit between animals and humans, against a backdrop of increasing levels of forced migration, present a major challenge to global public health. This review provides an overview of the currently available evidence of how displacement may affect zoonotic disease and pathogen transmission, with the aim to better understand how to protect health and resilience of displaced and host populations.

A systematic review was conducted aligned with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) reporting guidelines. Between December 2019 - February 2020, PubMed, Web of Science, PLoS, ProQuest, Science Direct and JSTOR were searched for literature. Studies were included based on a focus on zoonotic disease risks in displacement and/or humanitarian emergencies, and relevance in terms of livestock dependency of the displaced populations. Evidence was synthesised in form of a table and thematic analysis.

Of all records, 78 papers were selected for inclusion. Among the included studies, the majority were based on secondary data, including literature reviews (n=43) and case studies (n=5), while the majority of papers covered wide geographical areas such as the Global South (n=17) and Africa (n=20). The review shows significant gaps in the literature, which is specifically lacking primary data on zoonotic diseases in displacement. Risk factors for the transmission of zoonoses in displacement are based on generic infectious disease risks, which include the loss of health services, increased population density, changes in environment, reduced quality of living conditions and socio-economic factors. Regardless of the presence of these disease drivers during forced migration however, there is little evidence of large-scale zoonotic disease outbreaks linked directly to livestock in displacement.

Due to the lack of primary research, the complex interlinkages of factors affecting zoonotic pathogen transmission in displacement remain unclear. While the presence of animals may increase the burden of zoonotic pathogens, maintaining access to livestock may improve livelihoods, nutrition and mental health, with the potential to reduce people’s vulnerability to disease. Further primary interdisciplinary and multi-sectoral research is urgently required to address the evidence gaps identified in this review to support policy and program development.

Research shows that most emerging infectious diseases in humans have animal origins, either originating in domestic animals or wildlife [ 1 ], while neglected and endemic zoonoses, continuously transmitted between livestock and humans, are a significant burden to public health and livelihoods [ 2 ]. The transmission of zoonotic pathogens depends on complex interactions between susceptibility, periodicity and anthropogenic activities [ 3 ], influenced by a range of ecological, political and socio-economic drivers [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Poverty and low socio-economic status are among the most important determinants of people’s vulnerability to disease [ 6 ], with people whose livelihoods are affected by conflict or disasters therefore considered to be at an even higher risk. Humanitarian emergencies may result in the displacement of human and livestock populations. Movement is associated with increased mixing of displaced and host populations’ and their livestock, and increased contact between domestic animals, wildlife and humans, which risks increased disease transmission between species. Where animals and humans move into new environments, they may face new pathogens and vectors prevalent among local animal and human populations – the ‘host’ population to the displaced, against which they lack immunity. Health services and staff may be affected or become displaced themselves, hampering an organized response, exacerbating zoonotic disease outbreaks [ 6 ].

The number of displaced people is consistently growing [ 7 ], increasingly caused by environmental drivers [ 8 ]. Many of these forced migrants move in regions dependent on agriculture and livestock [ 9 ]. As livestock are relatively mobile, these are often among the few assets people bring along, however currently animals are largely banned in formal relief camps, due to the hypothetical increased risk of zoonotic disease. In response, displaced people may abandon or sell their animals before or during displacement, affecting people’s nutrition, psychosocial health, and ability to rebuild livelihoods [ 10 ]. The lack of access to formal relief camps of livestock because of zoonotic disease concerns acts as a deterrent from accessing services, as households or individual family members may opt to stay behind with the herds [ 11 ]. Lacking the provision of protection, water and feed for their animals in formal humanitarian responses, owners may adapt by letting their herds graze among host communities’ livestock, or encroach on wildlife habitat, increasing the risk of introduction of zoonotic pathogens to naïve populations, further increasing the risk of zoonotic disease [ 12 ].

Due to a lack of primary research addressing zoonoses in displacement contexts, zoonotic disease dynamics and related risks in displacement are not well understood. The purpose of this literature review is to identify research gaps and analyse the current available evidence on zoonotic disease in displaced populations.

Search strategy

This literature review was conducted based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement [ 13 ]. The database search was carried out between December 2019–February 2020, using the databases of PubMed, Web of Science, PLoS, ProQuest, Science Direct and JSTOR. To capture all available publications discussing zoonoses in displacement, the search strategy used a variety and combinations of search terms related to displacement, zoonotic diseases and humanitarian emergencies. No parameters were set regarding time period.

Study selection

Papers were only considered if the full text was available in English, thereby introducing a potential publication bias. All available abstracts were screened and included based on their focus on zoonotic disease risks in displacement and/or humanitarian emergencies, and relevance in terms of livestock dependency of the displaced populations. Duplicates were excluded from the review. The most important (grey) literature references within the literature were included in screening, based on the number of times these were referenced in various literature sources.

Quality assessment

The quality of eligible studies was assessed through a full-text review, evaluating the quality of literature reviews and primary data using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) model. Any disagreements were resolved through discussion.

Data extraction and analysis

All included papers were subject to a full-text analysis using a thematical analysis to develop an evidence matrix, which captured relevant data from each source using the main themes emerging from the literature. Themes captured included references to animal movement, causes and type of displacement, the effect of displacement on socio-economic, environmental, and biological factors. All literature was screened with a focus on the impact of (livestock) displacement on health systems, infectious disease outbreaks, disease dynamics and references to zoonoses in particular. Eventually, 78 papers were included in the systematic literature review for qualitative analysis (Fig.  1 ).

PRISMA systematic review protocol diagram for the literature selection and narrative synthesis

In this literature review we provide an overview of the currently available evidence of 1) zoonotic diseases associated with displacement contexts, and 2) drivers during displacement affecting zoonotic pathogen transmission risks, followed by a discussion addressing 3) gaps in the literature, and 4) current risk mitigation measures, concluding with entry points for further research to increase understanding on how to protect health, livelihoods and resilience of displaced populations, host communities and livestock.

The volume of publications identified in the review increases over time, with most of the included literature published within the last five years (Fig.  2 ).

Volume of relevant publications since 1986

Our review shows that there is a lack of primary research data. Over 55% of publications are literature reviews (n=43) or case studies based on secondary data (n=5) often with a qualitative focus. Case study findings through primary research were discussed in 20 papers, while 3 were program outcome reports. The other documents included dynamic disease models and United Nations (UN) documents (Fig. 3 ).

Type of publications included in the literature review

No publication focused on the specific risk of zoonoses related to livestock movement during displacement.

Geographically, studies included in the review are primarily global reviews (n=17), or focus on the ‘Global South’, a region disproportionally affected by forced displacement. In addition to regional reviews (n=7), papers cover individual countries in Africa (n=20), South Asia (n=9) and the Middle East (n=8), all areas with high levels of displacement and livestock dependency, with a growing body of literature discussing the adverse impact of the conflict in Syria (n=5) []. Papers focusing on Pakistan primarily discuss Afghan refugee health, which remains one of the largest refugee populations in the world. Three papers focus on South America and two on Southeast Asia, but no relevant literature covered East Asia or the Pacific (Fig.  4 ).

The number of publications focusing on specific geographical regions and countries

Most publications focus on general infectious disease risks in humanitarian emergencies, which sometimes include zoonotic diseases or symptoms, which may be attributed to zoonoses. There is a gap in the literature related to livestock in displacement and the associated risk of zoonotic diseases, resulting in assumptions regarding risk factors and transmission routes.

Diseases associated with humanitarian emergencies

While disasters and conflict do not directly cause infectious diseases [ 14 , 15 ], a disaster or conflict can ‘eliminate pre-existing barriers separating hosts and agents’ through the destruction of physical structures [ 16 ], introducing pathogens to naive populations. Injuries can lead to infections where pathogens are present [ 16 , 17 ]. Watson et al [ 18 ] note that vector-borne, water and crowding-related diseases are the most common causes of epidemics after disasters, with up to 75 percent of mortality due to both zoonotic and non-zoonotic diseases. Regular occurring infectious diseases and symptoms following emergencies are diarrhea, malaria, measles, pneumonia, upper and lower respiratory tract infections, skin diseases, tetanus and anaemia, several of which may be attributed to zoonoses [ 14 , 19 , 20 ]. Diarrhea is one of the main causes of morbidity and mortality in emergencies, especially among young children [ 15 , 21 ]. In flood-related disasters eye infections, leptospirosis, hepatitis and leishmaniasis are also common (Fig.  5 ) [ 22 , 23 ].

Symptoms and diseases associated with humanitarian emergencies (as referred to in > 2 independent reviewed articles)

Among the variety of symptoms and infectious diseases identified in the literature are a number of zoonotic diseases and/or symptoms which may be caused by zoonoses, although there remains a lack of primary data. Heath et al [ 24 ] identified diseases potentially affecting livestock following disasters including parasites, respiratory infections and skin diseases, some of which zoonotic. Human disease outbreaks associated with population displacement include Ebola, Lassa fever and tuberculosis [ 17 , 25 , 26 ] (Table  1 ).

Disease drivers in displacement

Displacement as a result of disasters and conflict is considered a major risk factor for pathogen transmission, including zoonoses [ 6 , 18 , 48 , 51 , 54 , 57 ]. Mortality among refugees is reported to be as much as 60 times a population’s pre-disaster baseline [ 15 ]. Writing about the risks of displacement to Lassa fever outbreaks, Lalis et al [ 46 ] acknowledge however that other socio-economic and political factors may influence health outcomes. Rather than considering displacement as an independent risk factor, human and animal movement are more likely to exacerbate a range of other disease drivers.

Health systems

The breakdown of health systems and related infrastructure is considered a major risk factor for pathogen transmission during emergencies and displacement [ 6 , 14 , 19 , 27 , 36 , 64 ], affecting a population’s health status and immunization coverage, increasing susceptibility to disease [ 49 ]. Healthcare and veterinary services may deteriorate or get overwhelmed [ 14 ], and public expenditure into the system often decreases [ 25 , 35 , 37 ]. Medical staff become exhausted, injured or displaced themselves, while a loss of management hampers the distribution of resources, supplies and equipment [ 34 ]. An interruption in health services affects surveillance, prevention, diagnosis and treatment and control programmes including vaccinations, quarantine and vector control [ 15 , 44 , 53 , 55 ], the provision of medication and follow-up [ 19 , 64 ]. Clinics and other facilities, such as laboratories, may be destroyed or otherwise become inaccessible [ 18 , 44 ], while cold chains for vaccine and medicine storage and transfer become interrupted or unavailable [ 34 , 51 ].

Decreased immunization among displaced populations, or immunization gaps between refugees and the host population, increases the risk of vaccine preventable diseases [ 34 , 64 ], although most of these are not zoonotic. A lack of quarantine and immunization of new arrivals may cause disease outbreaks among displaced and host populations [ 65 ]. The collapse of veterinary public health systems in Syria was associated with an increase in zoonotic leishmaniasis, brucellosis and rabies cases [ 28 ], including in neighbouring countries, as shifting control of geographical locations between government and opposing forces in Syria challenged disease surveillance and control [ 64 ]. During Venezuela’s recent displacement crisis vector-borne diseases re-emerged due to the lack of control programmes, resulting in outbreaks in neighbouring countries [ 59 ]. Meanwhile, the lack of vaccinations and surveillance led to outbreaks of infectious diseases among displaced and returned populations in Pakistan after the floods in 2010, including the zoonoses Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever [ 62 ].

Environment

Pathogen prevalence, available vectors and suitable hosts determine the risk of infectious disease outbreaks [ 27 , 61 ]. Humanitarian emergencies may alter the natural environment, thereby affecting pathogen and vector ecology, including selection pressure, development, survival, modification and transmission rates [ 30 , 38 , 63 ]. Structural damage during conflict and disasters has shown an increase in rodent populations and associated diseases [ 36 ]. Displacement may modify the environment through deforestation, the construction of settlements and irrigation, all affecting pathogen and vector dynamics [ 19 , 38 ]. Lassa fever outbreaks for instance occurred among populations of refugee camps in West Africa due to ecological changes, impacting the size and genetic variability of the rodent and pathogen populations attributed to forest and habitat destruction, in combination with poor living and food storage conditions attracting rodents [ 36 , 46 ].

Population displacement changes the geographic distribution of susceptible populations [ 26 ] and pathogens [ 38 ], altering the rates and nature of contact between human and animal populations, increasing the risks of bites and zoonotic diseases [ 1 , 27 , 39 ]. Livestock movement further extends the range of pathogens and vectors threatening naïve host populations [ 38 , 42 , 66 ].

Displaced populations may enter new ecological zones without immunity to local pathogens [ 10 , 19 , 38 , 67 ], or introduce pathogens to naive host populations by mixing infected and susceptible herds with different levels of pre-existing immunity and immune responses [ 6 , 40 , 52 , 59 ]. Afghan refugee movements for instance are linked to the reintroduction of cutaneous leishmaniasis to Pakistan into areas where the sandfly vector is endemic [ 58 , 68 ], as well as other zoonoses [ 61 ]. Similarly, the disease resurfaced in neighbouring countries to Syria following the outbreak of conflict, associated with population movements into previously uninhabited sandfly habitats [ 28 , 56 , 57 ].

Population density

Overcrowded camps and inadequate facilities are major risks to health, including interspecies and intraspecies infection [ 18 , 19 , 25 , 27 , 31 , 34 , 36 , 39 , 42 , 50 , 62 ]. As the transmission of zoonotic pathogens is linked to the close association of humans and their livestock [ 5 , 40 , 60 ], these risks increase in areas where animals and humans share compounds in densely populated areas [ 10 , 36 , 54 , 61 ]. Sedentary conditions in relief camps and informal settlements further increases the risk of intraspecies zoonotic pathogen transmission, once the disease has become endemic among the human population [ 32 , 38 , 42 ], as population size and density affects the probability of pathogens to infect susceptible hosts [ 17 , 47 , 58 , 60 , 65 ].

Water and sanitation

Standing water amid destroyed housing and infrastructure can create new breeding sites for vectors [ 16 , 43 , 67 ], while flooding may cause sewage overflow, contaminating the water supply [ 29 ], causing favorable conditions, for instance for leptospirosis transmission [ 29 , 39 ]. Animal and human feces may contaminate water and food sources, causing disease [ 16 , 20 , 22 , 25 , 31 , 40 ], such as gastrointestinal infections and Hepatitis A and E [ 16 ]. Due to the increased sharing of water sources among domestic animals and humans zoonotic parasitic infections risk is greater during displacement [ 40 ]. In Darfur, the lack of a clean water source was an important factor in an outbreak of Hepatitis E among displaced people [ 33 ]. Shears and Lusty [ 19 ] note however that the impact of improved water supply and sanitation during displacement is minimal if overcrowding is not addressed, as pollution may still occur further down the distribution chain.

Living conditions

Services in relief camps are often limited due to funding, logistical and sourcing constraints [ 31 ]. Inadequate shelter may increase the risk of transmission of zoonotic pathogens, as certain shelter types may not be suitable for vector control, for instance wooden huts cannot be treated with insecticide [ 19 ]. Brooker et al [ 58 ] showed that shelter materials impacted the risk of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Meanwhile, inadequate living conditions affecting human-animal interactions may pose risks to pathogen transmission pathways beyond zoonoses, as the lack of distance between animal and human hosts may cause an increase in prevalence of diseases such as malaria [ 63 ].

Broglia et al [ 69 ] identify the lack of hygiene as most problematic feature of animal husbandry in refugee camps, caused by inappropriate shelters and a change in husbandry practices. Animals may act as an additional feeding source for sandfly and other vectors [ 58 ], while the presence of dogs increases the risk of rabies [ 54 ]. Vector borne diseases in north west Pakistan have been ascribed to refugees bringing their livestock from Afghanistan into poor and dense living conditions [ 61 ], while keeping ruminants inside the compound at night for security increased people's risk of being bitten by Anopheles mosquitoes and malaria [ 70 ].

In disasters and complex emergencies, livelihoods may be lost and regular food supply disrupted due to a decline in agricultural input and output, diversion and loss [ 14 , 25 ]. Malnutrition of both animals and humans is common, and an important risk factor increasing susceptibility to, and the severity of,zoonotic disease [ 19 , 31 , 34 , 38 , 51 , 65 ].

Usually situated near roads and water sources, displacement camps and informal settlements are often established in marginalized areas lacking vegetation and agriculture, which may result in malnutrition and metabolic disorders in livestock, exacerbated by no-grazing policies in camps [ 69 ]. Compromised immunity of both animals and humans through exhaustion from displacement, untreated parasites and gastrointestinal infections further affect malnutrition [ 31 , 50 ].

Socio-economic

As socio-economic inequities and poverty are associated with poor health [ 6 , 39 , 71 ], disasters and displacement affect the availability of education, labour and livelihoods, further exacerbating poverty [ 6 ]. Displaced populations often face structural discrimination and violence, including a lack of equitable access to services [ 72 ]. Furthermore, displaced communities often live in marginalized geographical locations, with limited resources [ 73 ]. In areas where refugees move into poor host communities, disease outbreaks are more likely, for instance communities along the Afghan-Pakistan border bear the brunt of vector-borne diseases caused by displacement [ 61 ].

The literature review confirms Hammer et al [ 47 ] who noted that issues described in the literature around infectious diseases in complex emergencies have been 'poorly evidenced, not contextualised and not considered with respect to interaction effects'. While our review shows an increase in relevant literature in the past five years, which may be associated by a global increase in displaced populations, as well as renewed interest in, and emerging interdisciplinary approaches to zoonotic diseases, there remains a lack of primary, field-based evidence on zoonotic disease risks during displacement. Researchers point out the need for more research on zoonoses [ 1 ], interactions between population movement and infectious diseases [ 47 , 54 ], interspecies interactions between humans and animals, including during displacement [ 41 , 74 , 75 ], and social and epidemiological factors [ 45 ]. There is currently no data available on these complex interlinkages however, and any positive effects displaced animals may have on the epidemiology and dynamics of zoonoses [ 10 ].

Disease outbreaks depend on the presence of contagious pathogens and susceptible hosts [ 27 ], and transmission is influenced by the health and immunity status of the displaced and host human and animal populations and their mixing [ 18 ]. Most risk factors do not result in disease outbreaks in isolation. While poverty and malnutrition are associated with general ill health, the availability of quarantine and vaccinations determine the effectiveness of infectious disease control. Even where services are available, tradition and social pressure determines whether people access resources [ 10 ]. The collapse of health services and infrastructure is a major determinant for infectious disease risks in humanitarian emergencies, including zoonoses. Subsequent displacement affects vulnerability of displaced and host populations to vectors and pathogens by changing environmental conditions, increasing population density and reducing the quality of living conditions affecting hygiene [ 22 ]. Displaced populations are even more vulnerable to infectious disease due to malnutrition and long-term stress [ 36 ].

Risk mitigation

Disease prevention and preparedness, surveillance, early monitoring of risk factors and epidemiology are especially relevant in displacement [ 19 , 32 , 35 , 58 , 61 , 65 ]. To address infectious disease risks and compound hazards, the World Health Organization (WHO, 2005) recommends conducting assessments [ 17 , 18 , 47 , 56 ], followed by prevention measures, improving water supply and sanitation, preventing overcrowding, promoting hygiene [ 14 , 19 , 22 , 36 , 37 , 47 ], disease diagnoses, treatment and control, vaccination and immunization [ 14 , 19 , 34 , 47 , 62 , 65 ]. The impact of these measures is not well studied however. Data on disease incidence, epidemiology and medical geography, ecology, distribution needs to be collected [ 36 , 67 ], and include details of human behavior [ 5 , 42 , 45 , 48 , 76 ], in support of planning of camps [ 42 , 49 , 50 ].

While there is a lack of published evidence for the use of Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Standards (LEGS) or other standardized guidelines, some targeted livestock support programs are implemented in humanitarian emergencies, including vaccination campaigns and the provision of animal shelter [ 41 , 76 , 77 ]. Community based preparedness in camps and informal settlements improves animal husbandry and shelter [ 69 ], including the use of mosquito nets [ 31 , 70 ]. Feeding programs are recommended to mitigate malnutrition, improving animal health [ 14 , 21 , 24 ]. Watson and Catley [ 78 ] provide examples of an integrated livestock emergency response system, combining feed, water and health interventions, or destocking with the provision of feed.

Without proper coordination and oversight however, zoonotic disease control may have unintended consequences. In Guinea the killing, collection and burying of rats was promoted in refugee camps to prevent Lassa outbreaks; however, this may not have completely stopped the consumption of rodents, as anecdotal evidence suggests that some residents considered this as ‘wasted food’ [ 46 ]. The lack of coordination between veterinary and public health actors affects public health [ 36 ], and is therefore one of the main requirements of LEGS and WHO’s field manual ‘communicable disease control in emergencies’ [ 21 ]. To mitigate the lack of veterinary services in disaster preparedness and responses, animal health specialists should get involved in the development of legislation and response plans [ 24 ].

To address the risk of zoonotic pathogen transmission during displacement, stakeholders need to address disease control, as well as political and socio-economic factors such as poverty and access to services. Public health and policy support needs to be interdisciplinary and multi-sectoral, and consider not only veterinary and public health, but also political, social and economic realities of displacement contexts, to enable durable solutions [ 3 , 15 , 30 , 35 , 39 , 51 , 62 , 63 , 73 , 78 ].

The knowledge gap of zoonoses in displacement may be ascribed to a lack of research into the epidemiology of specific diseases, as zoonoses are often difficult to diagnose, or may indicate that the presence of livestock has not proven to be as much of a risk factor as assumed. Instead, maintaining access to livestock may improve livelihoods, nutrition and mental health, with the potential to reduce people’s vulnerability to disease, providing a strong argument for allowing animals into relief camps if inadequate living conditions and sanitation are addressed appropriately. There is a projected increase in displacement due to environmental causes, particularly affecting areas dependent on agriculture and livestock. The role of livestock in displacement, its impact on host communities, and the potential benefits of maintaining displaced communities’ access to animals, in terms of livelihoods and health, need to be actively researched to better inform policies and programs related to health, livelihoods and human movement.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

Abbreviations

Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Standards

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and meta-Analysis

United Nations

World Health Organization

Lloyd-Smith JO, George D, Pepin KM, Pitzer VE, Pulliam JR, Dobson AP, et al. Epidemic dynamics at the human-animal interface. Science. 2009;326(5958):1362–7.

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Halliday JE, Allan KJ, Ekwem D, Cleaveland S, Kazwala RR, Crump JA. Endemic zoonoses in the tropics: a public health problem hiding in plain sight. Vet Rec. 2015;176(9):220–5.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Scoones I, Jones K, Lo Iacono G, Redding DW, Wilkinson A, Wood JLN. Integrative modelling for One Health: pattern, process and participation. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci. 2017;372(1725):1–11 http://doi.org.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/10.1098/rstb.2016.0164 .

Article   Google Scholar  

Leach M, Scoones I. The social and political lives of zoonotic disease models: narratives, science and policy. Soc Sci Med. 2013;88:10–7.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Suk JE, Van Cangh T, Beaute J, Bartels C, Tsolova S, Pharris A, et al. The interconnected and cross-border nature of risks posed by infectious diseases. Glob Health Action. 2014;7:25287.

Du RY, Stanaway JD, Hotez PJ. Could violent conflict derail the London Declaration on NTDs? PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2018;12(4):e0006136.

UNHCR. Global Trends Forced Displacement in 2019. 2019.

Google Scholar  

Centre IDM. Global Report on Internal Displacement; 2020. p. 136.

IFAD. The linkages between migration, agriculture, food security and rural development. 2018.

Owczarczak-Garstecka S. Understanding risk in human–animal interactions. Forced Migr Rev. 2018;58:78–80.

UNHCR. Livestock-Keeping and Animal Husbandry in Refugee and Returnee Situations; 2005. p. 81.

Ducrotoy MJ, Majekodunmi AO, Shaw APM, Bagulo H, Bertu WJ, Gusi AM, et al. Patterns of passage into protected areas: Drivers and outcomes of Fulani immigration, settlement and integration into the Kachia Grazing Reserve, northwest Nigeria. Pastoralism. 2018;8(1):1.

Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, Group P. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. BMJ. 2009;339:b2535.

Toole MJ, Waldman RJ. The public health aspects of complex emergencies and refugee situations. Annu Rev Public Health. 1997;18:283–312.

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Bartelt LA. Natural Disasters and Infectious Diseases: Mitigating Risks to Vulnerable Populations. J Race Policy. 2011;7(1):75–92.

Liang SY, Messenger N. Infectious Diseases After Hydrologic Disasters. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2018;36(4):835–51.

Kouadio IK, Aljunid S, Kamigaki T, Hammad K, Oshitani H. Infectious diseases following natural disasters: prevention and control measures. Expert Rev Anti-Infect Ther. 2012;10(1):95–104.

Watson JT, Gayer M, Connolly MA. Epidemics after natural disasters. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13(1):1–5.

Shears P, Lusty T. Communicable Disease Epidemiology following Migration: Studies from the African Famine. Int Migr Rev. 1987;21(3):783–95.

Ghazali DA, Guericolas M, Thys F, Sarasin F, Arcos Gonzalez P, Casalino E. Climate Change Impacts on Disaster and Emergency Medicine Focusing on Mitigation Disruptive Effects: an International Perspective. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15(7):1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071379 .

Organization WH. A field manual - Communicable disease control in emergencies. 2005.

Baqir M, Sobani ZA, Bhamani A, Bham NS, Abid S, Farook J, et al. Infectious diseases in the aftermath of monsoon flooding in Pakistan. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2012;2(1):76–9.

Ahern M, Kovats RS, Wilkinson P, Few R, Matthies F. Global health impacts of floods: epidemiologic evidence. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:36–46.

Heath SE, Kenyon SJ, Zepeda Sein CA. Emergency management of disasters involving livestock in developing countries. Rev Sci Tech. 1999;18(1):256–71.

Kalipeni E, Oppong J. The refugee crisis in Africa and implications for health and disease: a political ecology approach. Soc Sci Med. 1998;46(12):1637–53.

Ismail MB, Rafei R, Dabboussi F, Hamze M. Tuberculosis, war, and refugees: Spotlight on the Syrian humanitarian crisis. PLoS Pathog. 2018;14(6):e1007014.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   CAS   Google Scholar  

Ivers LC, Ryan ET. Infectious diseases of severe weather-related and flood-related natural disasters. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2006;19(5):408–14.

Petersen E, Baekeland S, Memish ZA, Leblebicioglu H. Infectious disease risk from the Syrian conflict. Int J Infect Dis. 2013;17(9):e666–e7.

Article   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Suk JE, Vaughan EC, Cook RG, Semenza JC. Natural disasters and infectious disease in Europe: a literature review to identify cascading risk pathways. Eur J Pub Health. 2019;20(5):928–35 https://doi-org.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/10.1093/eurpub/ckz111 .

Muehlenbein MP. Disease and Human/Animal Interactions. Annu Rev Anthropol. 2016;45(1):395–416.

Chan EYY, Chiu CP, Chan GKW. Medical and health risks associated with communicable diseases of Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh 2017. Int J Infect Dis. 2018;68:39–43.

Paterson DL, Wright H, Harris PNA. Health Risks of Flood Disasters. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67(9):1450–4.

Guthmann JP, Klovstad H, Boccia D, Hamid N, Pinoges L, Nizou JY, et al. A large outbreak of hepatitis E among a displaced population in Darfur, Sudan, 2004: the role of water treatment methods. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(12):1685–91.

Lam E, McCarthy A, Brennan M. Vaccine-preventable diseases in humanitarian emergencies among refugee and internally-displaced populations. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2015;11(11):2627–36.

Pinto A, Saeed M, El Sakka H, Rashford A, Colombo A, Valenciano M, et al. Setting up an early warning system for epidemic-prone diseases in Darfur: a participative approach. Disasters. 2005;29(4):310–22.

Gayer M, Legros D, Formenty P, Connolly MA. Conflict and emerging infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13(11):1625–31.

Asokan GV, Vanitha A. Disaster response under One Health in the aftermath of Nepal earthquake, 2015. J Epidemiol Glob Health. 2017;7(1):91–6.

Petney TN. Environmental, cultural and social changes and their influence on parasite infections. Int J Parasitol. 2001;31(9):919–32.

Schneider MC, Tirado MC, Rereddy S, Dugas R, Borda MI, Peralta EA, et al. Natural disasters and communicable diseases in the Americas: contribution of veterinary public health. Vet Ital. 2012;48(2):193–218.

PubMed   Google Scholar  

Macpherson CNL. The effect of transhumance on the epidemiology of animal diseases. Prev Vet Med. 1995;25(2):213–24.

Angeloni G, Carr J. Animal and human health in the Sahrawi refugee camps. Forced Migr Rev. 2018;58:80–2.

Macpherson CNL. Epidemiology and control of parasites in nomadic situations. Vet Parasitol. 1994;54(1-3):87–102.

Hotez PJ. Modern Sunni-Shia conflicts and their neglected tropical diseases. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2018;12(2):e0006008.

Buliva E, Elhakim M, Tran Minh NN, Elkholy A, Mala P, Abubakar A, et al. Emerging and Reemerging Diseases in the World Health Organization (WHO) Eastern Mediterranean Region-Progress, Challenges, and WHO Initiatives. Front Public Health. 2017;5:276.

Woldehanna S, Zimicki S. An expanded One Health model: integrating social science and One Health to inform study of the human-animal interface. Soc Sci Med. 2015;129:87–95.

Lalis A, Leblois R, Lecompte E, Denys C, Ter Meulen J, Wirth T. The impact of human conflict on the genetics of Mastomys natalensis and Lassa virus in West Africa. PLoS One. 2012;7(5):e37068.

Hammer CC, Brainard J, Hunter PR. Risk factors and risk factor cascades for communicable disease outbreaks in complex humanitarian emergencies: a qualitative systematic review. BMJ Glob Health. 2018;3(4):e000647.

Richardson J, Lockhart C, Pongolini S, Karesh WB, Baylis M, Goldberg T, et al. Drivers for emerging issues in animal and plant health. EFSA J. 2016;14(Suppl 1):e00512.

Gortazar C, Reperant LA, Kuiken T, de la Fuente J, Boadella M, Martinez-Lopez B, et al. Crossing the interspecies barrier: opening the door to zoonotic pathogens. PLoS Pathog. 2014;10(6):e1004129.

Kloos H. Health aspects of resettlement in Ethiopia. Soc Sci Med. 1990;30(6):643–56.

Abubakar A, Ruiz-Postigo JA, Pita J, Lado M, Ben-Ismail R, Argaw D, et al. Visceral leishmaniasis outbreak in South Sudan 2009-2012: epidemiological assessment and impact of a multisectoral response. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8(3):e2720.

Patz JA, Graczyk TK, Geller N, Vittor AY. Effects of environmental change on emerging parasitic diseases. Int J Parasitol. 2000;30(12-13):1395–405.

de Beer P, el Harith A, Deng LL, Semiao-Santos SJ, Chantal B, van Grootheest M. A killing disease epidemic among displaced Sudanese population identified as visceral leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1991;44(3):283–9.

Aagaard-Hansen J, Nombela N, Alvar J. Population movement: a key factor in the epidemiology of neglected tropical diseases. Tropical Med Int Health. 2010;15(11):1281–8.

Zijlstra EE, Ali MS, El-Hassan AM, El-Toum IA, Satti M, Ghalib HW, et al. Kala-azar in displaced people from southern Sudan: epidemiological, clinical and therapeutic findings. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1991;85(3):365–9.

Du R, Hotez PJ, Al-Salem WS, Acosta-Serrano A. Old World Cutaneous Leishmaniasis and Refugee Crises in the Middle East and North Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016;10(5):e0004545.

Chambers SN, Tabor JA. Remotely identifying potential vector habitat in areas of refugee and displaced person populations due to the Syrian civil war. Geospat Health. 2018;13(2):276–80. https://doi.org/10.4081/gh.2018.670 .

Brooker S, Mohammed N, Adil K, Agha S, Reithinger R, Rowland M, et al. Leishmaniasis in refugee and local Pakistani populations. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10(9):1681–4.

Grillet ME, Hernández-Villena JV, Llewellyn MS, Paniz-Mondolfi AE, Tami A, Vincenti-Gonzalez MF, et al. Venezuela's humanitarian crisis, resurgence of vector-borne diseases, and implications for spillover in the region. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19(5):e149–e61.

Kilpatrick AM, Randolph SE. Drivers, dynamics, and control of emerging vector-borne zoonotic diseases. Lancet. 2012;380(9857):1946–55.

Nieto NC, Khan K, Uhllah G, Teglas MB. The emergence and maintenance of vector-borne diseases in the khyber pakhtunkhwa province, and the federally administered tribal areas of pakistan. Front Physiol. 2012;3:250.

Warraich H, Zaidi AK, Patel K. Floods in Pakistan: a public health crisis. Bull World Health Organ. 2011;89(3):236–7.

Sutherst RW. Global change and human vulnerability to vector-borne diseases. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004;17(1):136–73.

Ismail SA, Abbara A, Collin SM, Orcutt M, Coutts AP, Maziak W, et al. Communicable disease surveillance and control in the context of conflict and mass displacement in Syria. Int J Infect Dis. 2016;47:15–22.

Santaniello-Newton A, Hunter PR. Management of an outbreak of meningococcal meningitis in a Sudanese refugee camp in Northern Uganda. Epidemiol Infect. 2000;124(1):75–81.

Hoots C. The role of livestock in refugee-host community relations. Forced Migr Rev. 2018;58:71–3.

Abdul-Ghani R, Mahdy MAK, Al-Eryani SMA, Fouque F, Lenhart AE, Alkwri A, et al. Impact of population displacement and forced movements on the transmission and outbreaks of Aedes-borne viral diseases: Dengue as a model. Acta Trop. 2019;197:105066.

Rowland M, Munir A, Durrani N, Noyes H, Reyburn H. An outbreak of cutaneous leishmaniasis in an Afghan refugee settlement in north-west Pakistan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1999;93(2):133–6.

Broglia A, Ahmadi A, Di Lello S. Vétérinaires Sans Frontières (VSF) projectsin Sahrawi refugee camps: Livestock management and veterinary service betweenemergency and development. Tropicultura. 2005;23:53–7.

Hewitt S, Kamal M, Muhammad N, Rowland M. An entomological investigation of the likely impact of cattle ownership on malaria in an Afghan refugee camp in the North West Frontier Province of Pakistan. Med Vet Entomol. 1994;8(2):160–4.

Dahlgren G, Whitehead M. Policies and strategies to promote social equity in health. Background document to WHO - Strategy paper for Europe. Arbetsrapport Institute for Futures Studies. 1991;2007(14):1–69 ISBN: 978-91-85619-18-4.

Castaneda H, Holmes SM, Madrigal DS, Young ME, Beyeler N, Quesada J. Immigration as a social determinant of health. Annu Rev Public Health. 2015;36:375–92.

McMichael AJ, Patz J, Kovats RS. Impacts of global environmental change on future health and health care in tropical countries. Br Med Bull. 1998;54(2):475–88.

Pike BL, Saylors KE, Fair JN, Lebreton M, Tamoufe U, Djoko CF, et al. The origin and prevention of pandemics. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50(12):1636–40.

White B. Humans and animals in refugee camps. Forced Migr Rev. 2018;58:70–1.

Alshawawreh L. Sheltering animals in refugee camps. Forced Migr Rev. 2018;58:76–8.

FAO. Livestock related interventions during emergencies; 2016. p. 260.

Watson C, Catley A. Livelihoods, livestock and humanitarian response: the Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Standards. Humanitarian Pract Netw. 2008;64:1–28 ISBN: 978 0 85003 893 4.

Download references

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

This review is part of research funded by the Gates-Cambridge Trust (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation [OPP1144]).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Disease Dynamics Unit, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Dorien Hanneke Braam, Freya Louise Jephcott & James Lionel Norman Wood

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors (DB, FJ, JW) contributed to the conceptualisation of the research and manuscript. Coding was done by DB and analysis reviewed by FJ and JW. DB wrote the draft manuscript and FJ and JW contributed feedback to and revisions of the manuscript. All authors revised and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Dorien Hanneke Braam .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate, consent for publication, competing interests.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Supplementary Information

Additional file 1., rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Braam, D.H., Jephcott, F.L. & Wood, J.L.N. Identifying the research gap of zoonotic disease in displacement: a systematic review. glob health res policy 6 , 25 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41256-021-00205-3

Download citation

Received : 17 August 2020

Accepted : 08 June 2021

Published : 16 July 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s41256-021-00205-3

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Zoonotic diseases
• Forced migration
• Displacement
• Humanitarian emergencies

Global Health Research and Policy

ISSN: 2397-0642

• Submission enquiries: Access here and click Contact Us
• General enquiries: [email protected]

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Journal Proposal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• PubMed/Medline
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Zoonotic diseases: etiology, impact, and control.

1. Introduction

2. classification of zoonoses, 3. zoonoses of domestic animals, 4. zoonoses of pets, companion animals, and birds, 5. zoonoses of fish and aquatic environments, 6. zoonoses associated with food-borne pathogens, 7. potential zoonoses transmitted by edible insects, 8. emerging and re-emerging zoonoses, 8.1. wild animals and re-emerging zoonoses, 8.2. zoonotic coronaviruses, 9. neglected zoonoses, 10. impact of zoonoses, 11. control of zoonoses.

• Pathogen surveillance to detect and identify pathogens.
• Serological surveillance to detect the presence of pathogens in the blood of humans or animals through monitoring immune responses.
• Syndrome surveillance to determine the propensity of diseases through data analysis based on symptoms. This analysis-based surveillance cannot be used identify the presence of pathogens.
• Risk surveillance to detect risk factors responsible for the transmission of disease. This control strategy cannot be used to determine the clinical features of multifarious diseases along with their prevalence.

Zoonoses and One Health

12. recommendations.

• Active and wider zoonoses surveillance and monitoring with advanced tools like satellite-based remote sensing system and molecular epidemiological tools.
• Disease reporting and notification service.
• Giving priority to zoonoses and action team formation.
• Available diagnostic facilities and skilled manpower.
• Cooperation at regional, national, subnational, and international levels.
• One health-based approach comprising both veterinarians and medical doctors in addition to environmental experts and other professionals.
• Ensuring adequate regular and emergency funding.
• Mass campaigning on public awareness on zoonoses.
• More research on disease epidemiology, risk factors, pathogen virulence, host biology, and vector biology.
• Wildlife monitoring and wildlife protection.
• Ensure safe food production of animal origin.
• Ensure safety of infectious laboratories to avoid the accidental spread of zoonotic infections and bioterrorism.
• Protection of environment.
• National and international educational programs to make people aware of zoonoses and hygiene.

13. Conclusions

Author contributions, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

• Thompson, A.; Kutz, S. Introduction to the Special Issue on ‘Emerging Zoonoses and Wildlife’. Int. J. Parasitol. Parasites Wildl. 2019 , 9 , 322. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• World Health Organization. Asia Pacific Strategy for Emerging Diseases: 2010. Manila: WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific. Available online: https://iris.wpro.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665.1/7819/9789290615040_eng.pdf (accessed on 20 July 2020).
• Slingenbergh, J. World Livestock 2013: Changing Disease Landscapes ; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO): Rome, Italy, 2013; p. 2. [ Google Scholar ]
• World Health Organization. WHO Health Topic Page: Zoonoses. Available online: https://www.who.int/topics/zoonoses/en/ (accessed on 20 July 2020).
• Taylor, L.H.; Latham, S.M.; Woolhouse, M.E. Risk factors for human disease emergence. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 2001 , 356 , 983–989. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Grace, D.; Mutua, F.; Ochungo, P.; Kruska, R.; Jones, K.; Brierley, L.; Lapar, L.; Said, M.; Herrero, M.; Phuc, P.M.; et al. Mapping of poverty and likely zoonoses hotspots. In Zoonoses Project 4. Report to the UK Department for International Development ; International Livestock Research Institute: Nairobi, Kenya, 2012. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chomel, B.B. Zoonoses. In Encyclopedia of Microbiology , 3rd ed.; Elsevier Inc., University of California: Davis, CA, USA, 2009; pp. 820–829. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hubálek, Z. Emerging human infectious diseases: Anthroponoses, zoonoses, and sapronoses. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2003 , 9 , 403–404. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• McDaniel, C.J.; Cardwell, D.M.; Moeller, R.B.; Gray, G.C. Humans and cattle: A review of bovine zoonoses. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2014 , 14 , 1–19. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Bae, S.E.; Son, H.S. Classification of viral zoonosis through receptor pattern analysis. BMC Bioinform. 2011 , 12 , 96. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Mortimer, P.P. Influenza: The centennial of a zoonosis. Rev. Med. Virol. 2019 , 29 , e2030. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Huang, Y.J.S.; Higgs, S.; Vanlandingham, D.L. Arbovirus-mosquito vector-host interactions and the impact on transmission and disease pathogenesis of arboviruses. Front. Microbiol. 2019 , 10 , 22. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pavlovsky, E.N. Natural Nidality of Transmissible Diseases with Special Reference to the Landscape Epidemiology of Zooanthroponoses ; University of Illinois Press: Champaign, IL, USA, 1966. [ Google Scholar ]
• Beaty, B.J.; Marquardt, W.C. The Biology of Disease Vector ; University Press of Colorado: Niwot, CO, USA, 1996. [ Google Scholar ]
• Somov, G.P.; Litvin, V.J. Saprophytism and Parasitism of Pathogenic Bacteria—Ecological Aspects ; Nauka: Novosibirsk, Russia, 1988. (In Russian) [ Google Scholar ]
• Schwabe, C.W. Veterinary medicine and human health. In Veterinary Medicine and Human Health ; The Williams & Wilkins Company, 428 E. Preston St.: Baltimore, MD, USA, 1964. [ Google Scholar ]
• Olayemi, A.; Adesina, A.S.; Strecker, T.; Magassouba, N.F.; Fichet-Calvet, E. Determining Ancestry between Rodent-and Human-Derived Virus Sequences in Endemic Foci: Towards a More Integral Molecular Epidemiology of Lassa Fever within West Africa. Biology 2020 , 9 , 26. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Cerdà-Cuéllar, M.; Moré, E.; Ayats, T.; Aguilera, M.; Muñoz-González, S.; Antilles, N.; Ryan, P.G.; González-Solís, J. Do humans spread zoonotic enteric bacteria in Antarctica? Sci. Total Environ. 2019 , 654 , 190–196. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Adesokan, H.K.; Akinseye, V.O.; Streicher, E.M.; Van Helden, P.; Warren, R.M.; Cadmus, S.I. Reverse zoonotic tuberculosis transmission from an emerging Uganda I strain between pastoralists and cattle in South-Eastern Nigeria. BMC Vet. Res. 2019 , 15 , 1–7. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Messenger, A.M.; Barnes, A.N.; Gray, G.C. Reverse zoonotic disease transmission (zooanthroponosis): A systematic review of seldom-documented human biological threats to animals. PLoS ONE 2014 , 9 , e89055. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• County of Los Angeles Public Health. Overview of Zoonoses. Available online: http://www.lapublichealth.org/vet/guides/vetzooman.htm (accessed on 20 July 2020).
• Morand, S.; McIntyre, K.M.; Baylis, M. Domesticated animals and human infectious diseases of zoonotic origins: Domestication time matters. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2014 , 24 , 76–81. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• McNeill, W.H. Plagues and People ; Anchor Press: New York, NY, USA, 1976. [ Google Scholar ]
• Klous, G.; Huss, A.; Heederik, D.J.; Coutinho, R.A. Human–livestock contacts and their relationship to transmission of zoonotic pathogens, a systematic review of literature. One Health 2016 , 2 , 65–76. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Pearce-Duvet, J.M. The origin of human pathogens: Evaluating the role of agriculture and domestic animals in the evolution of human disease. Biol. Rev. 2006 , 81 , 369–382. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Samad, M.A. Public health threat caused by zoonotic diseases in Bangladesh. Bangladesh J. Vet. Med. 2011 , 9 , 95–120. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Ghasemzadeh, I.; Namazi, S.H. Review of bacterial and viral zoonotic infections transmitted by dogs. J. Med. Life 2015 , 8 , 1–5. [ Google Scholar ]
• Goel, A.K. Anthrax: A disease of biowarfare and public health importance. World J. Clin. Cases 2015 , 3 , 20–33. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kamal, S.M.; Rashid, A.K.; Bakar, M.A.; Ahad, M.A. Anthrax: An update. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2011 , 1 , 496–501. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Torgerson, P.R.; Torgerson, D.J. Public health and bovine tuberculosis: What’s all the fuss about? Trends Microbiol. 2010 , 18 , 67–72. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Bayraktar, B.; Bulut, E.; Barış, A.B.; Toksoy, B.; Dalgıc, N.; Celikkan, C.; Sevgi, D. Species distribution of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in clinical isolates from 2007 to 2010 in Turkey: A prospective study. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2011 , 49 , 3837–3841. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Bayraktar, B.; Togay, A.; Gencer, H.; Kockaya, T.; Dalgic, N.; Bulut, E. Mycobacterium caprae causing lymphadenitis in a child. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2011 , 30 , 1012–1013. [ Google Scholar ] [ PubMed ]
• Moda, G.; Daborn, C.J.; Grange, J.M.; Cosivi, O. The zoonotic importance of Mycobacterium bovis . Tuber. Lung Dis. 1996 , 77 , 103–108. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ocepek, M.; Pate, M.; Žolnir-Dovč, M.; Poljak, M. Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from human to cattle. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2005 , 43 , 3555–3557. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Hull, N.C.; Schumaker, B.A. Comparisons of brucellosis between human and veterinary medicine. Infect. Ecol. Epidemiol. 2018 , 8 , 1500846. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• WHO. The Control of Neglected Zoonotic Diseases: From Advocacy to Action: Report of the Fourth International Meeting Held at WHO Headquarters, Geneva, Switzerland, 19–20 November 2014 ; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2015; p. 44. [ Google Scholar ]
• Corbel, M.J.; Alton, G.G.; Banai, M.; Díaz, R.; Dranovskaia, B.A.; Elberg, S.S.; Garin-Bastuji, B.; Kolar, J.; Mantovani, A.; Mousa, A.M.; et al. Brucellosis in Humans and Animals ; WHO Press: Geneva, Switzerland, 2006. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rahman, M.S.; Han, J.C.; Park, J.; Lee, J.H.; Eo, S.K.; Chae, J.S. Prevalence of brucellosis and its association with reproductive problems in cows in Bangladesh. Vet. Rec. 2006 , 159 , 180–182. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Krebs, J.W.; Mandel, E.J.; Swerdlow, D.L.; Rupprecht, C.E. Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2003. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2004 , 225 , 1837–1849. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Tang, X.; Luo, M.; Zhang, S.; Fooks, A.R.; Hu, R.; Tu, C. Pivotal role of dogs in rabies transmission, China. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2005 , 11 , 1970–1972. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liu, Q.; Wang, X.; Liu, B.; Gong, Y.; Mkandawire, N.; Li, W.; Fu, W.; Li, L.; Gan, Y.; Shi, J.; et al. Improper wound treatment and delay of rabies post-exposure prophylaxis of animal bite victims in China: Prevalence and determinants. PLoS Neglect. Trop. Dis. 2017 , 11 , e0005663. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• World Health Organization. Rabies vaccines: WHO position paper. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 2018 , 93 , 201–220. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ghosh, S.; Rana, M.S.; Islam, M.K.; Chowdhury, S.; Haider, N.; Kafi, M.A.H.; Ullah, S.M.; Shah, M.R.A.; Jahan, A.A.; Mursalin, H.S.; et al. Trends and clinico-epidemiological features of human rabies cases in Bangladesh 2006–2018. Sci. Rep. 2020 , 10 , 1–11. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Plotkin, S.; Orenstein, W.; Offit, P.; Edwards, M.K. Vaccine. In Plotkin’s Vaccines , 7th ed.; Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2017; pp. 918–942. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jackson, A.C. Human rabies: A 2016 update. Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. 2016 , 18 , 38. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Mitrabhakdi, E.; Shuangshoti, S.; Wannakrairot, P.; Lewis, R.A.; Susuki, K.; Laothamatas, J.; Hemachudha, T. Difference in neuropathogenetic mechanisms in human furious and paralytic rabies. J. Neurol. Sci. 2005 , 238 , 3–10. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Hemachudha, T.; Laothamatas, J.; Rupprecht, C.E. Human rabies: A disease of complex neuropathogenetic mechanisms and diagnostic challenges. Lancet Neurol. 2002 , 1 , 101–109. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dimaano, E.M.; Scholand, S.J.; Alera, M.T.P.; Belandres, D.B. Clinical and epidemiological features of human rabies cases in the Philippines: A review from 1987 to 2006. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2011 , 15 , e495–e499. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Chomel, B.B.; Sun, B. Zoonoses in the bedroom. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2011 , 17 , 167–172. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Halsby, K.D.; Walsh, A.L.; Campbell, C.; Hewitt, K.; Morgan, D. Healthy animals, healthy people: Zoonosis risk from animal contact in pet shops, a systematic review of the literature. PLoS ONE 2014 , 9 , e89309. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Day, M.J. Pet-Related Infections. Am. Fam. Physician. 2016 , 94 , 794–802. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jacob, J.; Lorber, B. Diseases transmitted by man’s best friend: The dog. Infect. Leis. 2015 , 3 , 111–131. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Boseret, G.; Losson, B.; Mainil, J.G.; Thiry, E.; Saegerman, C. Zoonoses in pet birds: Review and perspectives. Vet. Res. 2013 , 44 , 36. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Moro, C.V.; Chauve, C.; Zenner, L. Vectorial role of some dermanyssoid mites (Acari, Mesostigmata, Dermanyssoidea). Parasite 2005 , 12 , 99–109. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dorrestein, G.M. Bacterial and parasitic diseases of passerines. Vet. Clin. North Am. Exot. Anim. Pract. 2009 , 12 , 433–451. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Jorn, K.S.; Thompson, K.M.; Larson, J.M.; Blair, J.E. Polly can make you sick: Pet bird-associated diseases. Cleve. Clin. J. Med. 2009 , 76 , 235–243. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Zaman, S.B.; Sobur, M.A.; Hossain, M.J.; Pondit, A.; Khatun, M.M.; Choudhury, M.A.; Tawyabur, M.; Rahman, M.T. Molecular detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in ornamental birds having public health significance. J. Bangladesh Agril. Univ. 2020 , 18 , 415–420. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kauffman, M.D.; LeJeune, J. European starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris ) challenged with Escherichia coli O157 can carry and transmit the human pathogen to cattle. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2011 , 53 , 596–601. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Belchior, E.; Barataud, D.; Ollivier, R.; Capek, I.; Laroucau, K.; De Barbeyrac, B.; Hubert, B. Psittacosis outbreak after participation in a bird fair, Western France, December 2008. Epidemiol. Infect. 2011 , 139 , 1637–1641. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Vanrompay, D.; Harkinezhad, T.; Van de Walle, M.; Beeckman, D.; Van Droogenbroeck, C.; Verminnen, K.; Leten, R.; Martel, A.; Cauwerts, K. Chlamydophila psittaci transmission from pet birds to humans. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2007 , 13 , 1108–1110. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chomel, B.B. Emerging and Re-Emerging Zoonoses of Dogs and Cats. Animals 2014 , 4 , 434–445. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Burgos-Cáceres, S. Canine rabies: A looming threat to public health. Animals 2011 , 1 , 326–342. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Faires, M.C.; Tater, K.C.; Weese, J.S. An investigation of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization in people and pets in the same household with an infected person or infected pet. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2009 , 235 , 540–543. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Klotz, S.A.; Ianas, V.; Elliott, S.P. Cat-scratch disease. Am. Fam. Physician 2011 , 83 , 152–155. [ Google Scholar ]
• Boylan, S. Zoonoses associated with fish. Vet. Clin. Exot. Anim. Pract. 2011 , 14 , 427–438. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Alworth, L.C.; Harvey, S.B. IACUC issues associated with amphibian research. ILAR J. 2007 , 48 , 278–289. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Haenan, O.L.M.; Evans, J.J.; Berthe, F. Bacterial infections from aquatic species: Potential for and prevention of contact zoonoses. Rev. Sci. Tech. 2013 , 32 , 497–507. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Abbot, S.L.; Janda, J.M.; Johnson, J.A.; Farmer, J.J. Vibrio and related organisms. In Manual of Clinical Microbiology , 9th ed.; Murray, P.R., Barron, E.J., Jorgensen, J.H., Landry, M.L., Pfaller, M.A., Eds.; ASM Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2007; pp. 723–733. [ Google Scholar ]
• Austin, B. Vibrios as causal agents of zoonoses. Vet. Microbiol. 2010 , 140 , 310–317. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Zhang, Q.; Dong, X.; Chen, B.; Zhang, Y.; Zu, Y.; Li, W. Zebrafish as a useful model for zoonotic Vibrio parahaemolyticus pathogenicity in fish and human. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 2016 , 55 , 159–168. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Zereen, F.; Akter, S.; Sobur, M.A.; Hossain, M.T.; Rahman, M.T. Molecular detection of Vibrio cholerae from human stool collected from SK Hospital, Mymensingh, and their antibiogram. J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res. 2019 , 6 , 451–455. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chen, B.Y.; Wang, C.Y.; Wang, C.L.; Fan, Y.C.; Weng, I.T.; Chou, C.H. Prevalence and persistence of Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat tilapia sashimi processing plants. J. Food Prot. 2016 , 79 , 1898–1903. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kušar, D.; Zajc, U.; Jenčič, V.; Ocepek, M.; Higgins, J.; Žolnir-Dovč, M.; Pate, M. Mycobacteria in aquarium fish: Results of a 3-year survey indicate caution required in handling pet-shop fish. J. Fish Dis. 2017 , 40 , 773–784. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gauthier, D.T.; Rhodes, M.W. Mycobacteriosis in fishes: A review. Vet. J. 2009 , 180 , 33–47. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Vega-López, F. Mycobacterium marinum Infection: Fish Tank Granuloma. In Hunter’s Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Diseases , 10th ed.; Elsevier Inc.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2020; pp. 569–570. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sunil, V.; Harris, A.W.; Sine, B.; Holt, A.M.; Noseworthy, A.L.; Sider, D.; Jamieson, F.B.; White, S.; Johnston, C.; Spohn, O. Investigation of a community cluster of cutaneous Mycobacterium marinum infection, an emerging zoonotic pathogen in aquaculture industry, Haliburton, Kawartha, Pine Ridge District Health Unit, Ontario, Canada, July–August 2015. Zoonoses Public Health 2019 , 66 , 164–168. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Christopher, T.; Cassetty, M.D.; Miguel Sanchez, M.D. Mycobacterium marinum infection. Dermatol. Online J. 2004 , 10 , 21. [ Google Scholar ]
• Reidarson, T. Cetacea. In Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine , 5th ed.; Fowler, M., Ed.; Saunders: St. Louis, MO, USA, 2003; pp. 442–459. [ Google Scholar ]
• Dunn, L. Bacterial and mycotic diseases of cetaceans and pinnipeds. In CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine: Health, Disease, and Rehabilitation ; Dierauf, L., Ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1990; pp. 73–87. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gauthier, D.T. Bacterial zoonoses of fishes: A review and appraisal of evidence for linkages between fish and human infections. Vet. J. 2015 , 203 , 27–35. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Reboli, A.C.; Farrar, W.E. Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae : An occupational pathogen. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 1989 , 2 , 354–359. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Wang, Q.; Chang, B.J.; Riley, T.V. Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae. Vet. Microbiol. 2010 , 140 , 405–417. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Gorby, G.; Peacock, J. Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae endocarditis: Microbiologic, epidemiologic, and clinical features of an occupational disease. Rev. Infect. Dis. 1988 , 10 , 317–325. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Klauder, J.; Kramer, D.; Nicholas, L.; Kast, C.; Groskin, L.O.R.A.I.N.E. Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae septicemia: Diagnosis and treatment: Report of fatal case of erysipeloid. JAMA 1943 , 122 , 938–943. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Principe, L.; Bracco, S.; Mauri, C.; Tonolo, S.; Pini, B.; Luzzaro, F. Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae bacteremia without endocarditis: Rapid identification from positive blood culture by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. A case report and literature review. Infect. Dis. Rep. 2016 , 8 , 6368. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Gibello, A.; Galán-Sánchez, F.; Blanco, M.M.; Rodríguez-Iglesias, M.; Domínguez, L.; Fernández-Garayzábal, J.F. The zoonotic potential of Lactococcus garvieae : An overview on microbiology, epidemiology, virulence factors and relationship with its presence in foods. Res. Vet. Sci. 2016 , 109 , 59–70. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Meyburgh, C.M.; Bragg, R.R.; Boucher, C.E. Lactococcus garvieae : An emerging bacterial pathogen of fish. Dis. Aquat. Org. 2017 , 123 , 67–79. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Vendrell, D.; Balcázar, J.L.; Ruiz-Zarzuela, I.; De Blas, I.; Gironés, O.; Múzquiz, J.L. Lactococcus garvieae in fish: A review. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2006 , 29 , 177–198. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Malek, A.; De la Hoz, A.; Gomez-Villegas, S.I.; Nowbakht, C.; Arias, C.A. Lactococcus garvieae , an unusual pathogen in infective endocarditis: Case report and review of the literature. BMC Infect. Dis. 2019 , 19 , 301. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Chan, J.F.W.; Woo, P.C.Y.; Teng, J.L.L.; Lau, S.K.P.; Leung, S.S.M.; Tam, F.C.C.; Yuen, K.Y. Primary infective spondylodiscitis caused by Lactococcus garvieae and a review of human L. garvieae infections. Infection 2011 , 39 , 259–264. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Kim, J.H.; Go, J.; Cho, C.R.; Kim, J.I.; Lee, M.S.; Park, S.C. First report of human acute acalculous cholecystitis caused by the fish pathogen Lactococcus garvieae . J. Clin. Microbiol. 2013 , 51 , 712–714. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Maekawa, S.; Yoshida, T.; Wang, P.C.; Chen, S.C. Current knowledge of nocardiosis in teleost fish. J. Fish Dis. 2018 , 41 , 413–419. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Austin, B.; Austin, D. Bacterial Fish Pathogens: Diseases in Farmed and Wild Fish , 3rd ed.; Springer-Praxis: Chichester, UK, 1999. [ Google Scholar ]
• Orchard, V.A. Nocardial infections of animals in New Zealand, 1976–1978. N. Z. Vet. J. 1979 , 27 , 159–165. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Walton, A.M.; Libke, K.G. Nocardiosis in animals. Vet. Med. Small. Anim. Clin. 1974 , 69 , 1105–1107. [ Google Scholar ] [ PubMed ]
• Lederman, E.R.; Crum, N.F. A case series and focused review of nocardiosis: Clinical and microbiologic aspects. Medicine 2004 , 83 , 300–313. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Newell, D.G.; Koopmans, M.; Verhoef, L.; Duizer, E.; Aidara-Kane, A.; Sprong, H.; Opsteegh, M.; Langelaar, M.; Threfall, J.; Scheutz, F.; et al. Food-borne diseases—The challenges of 20 years ago still persist while new ones continue to emerge. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2010 , 139 , S3–S15. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• World Health Organization. WHO Estimates of the Global Burden of Foodborne Diseases: Foodborne Disease Burden Epidemiology Reference Group 2007–2015 ; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2015; p. 225. [ Google Scholar ]
• Thorns, C.J. Bacterial food-borne zoonoses. Rev. Sci. Tech. 2000 , 19 , 226–239. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ievy, S.; Islam, M.S.; Sobur, M.A.; Talukder, M.; Rahman, M.B.; Khan, M.F.R.; Rahman, M.T. Molecular Detection of Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) for the First Time in Layer Farms in Bangladesh and Their Antibiotic Resistance Patterns. Microorganisms 2020 , 8 , 1021. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Alam, S.B.; Mahmud, M.; Akter, R.; Hasan, M.; Sobur, A.; Nazir, K.H.M.; Noreddin, A.; Rahman, T.; El Zowalaty, M.E.; Rahman, M. Molecular detection of multidrug resistant Salmonella species isolated from broiler farm in Bangladesh. Pathogens 2020 , 9 , 201. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Sobur, M.A.; Sabuj, A.A.M.; Sarker, R.; Rahman, A.M.M.T.; Kabir, S.M.L.; Rahman, M.T. Antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. associated with dairy cattle and farm environment having public health significance. Vet. World 2019 , 12 , 984–993. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Treacy, J.; Jenkins, C.; Paranthaman, K.; Jorgensen, F.; Mueller-Doblies, D.; Anjum, M.; Kaindama, L.; Hartman, H.; Kirchner, M.; Carson, T.; et al. Outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157: H7 linked to raw drinking milk resolved by rapid application of advanced pathogen characterisation methods, England, August to October 2017. Eurosurveill. 2019 , 24 , 1800191. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yara, D.A.; Greig, D.R.; Gally, D.L.; Dallman, T.J.; Jenkins, C. Comparison of Shiga toxin-encoding bacteriophages in highly pathogenic strains of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157: H7 in the UK. Microb. Genom. 2020 , 6 , e000334. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Mir, R.A.; Kudva, I.T. Antibiotic-resistant Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli: An overview of prevalence and intervention strategies. Zoonoses Public Health 2019 , 66 , 1–13. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Hanboonsong, Y.; Jamjanya, T.; Durst, P.B. Six-Legged Livestock: Edible Insect Farming, Collection and Marketing in Thailand ; RAP Publication No. 2013/03; Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangog: Bangkok, Thailand, 2013. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gałęcki, R.; Sokół, R. A parasitological evaluation of edible insects and their role in the transmission of parasitic diseases to humans and animals. PLoS ONE 2019 , 14 , e0219303. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Van Huis, A.; Van Itterbeeck, J.; Klunder, H.; Mertens, E.; Halloran, A.; Muir, G.; Vantomme, P. Edible Insects: Future Prospects for Food and Food ; Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2013. [ Google Scholar ]
• Belluco, S.; Losasso, C.; Ricci, A.; Maggioletti, M.; Alonzi, C.; Paoletti, M.G. Edible insects: A food security solution or a food safety concern? Anim. Front. 2015 , 5 , 25–30. [ Google Scholar ]
• Belluco, S.; Losasso, C.; Maggioletti, M.; Alonzi, C.C.; Paoletti, M.G.; Ricci, A. Edible insects in a food safety and nutritional perspective: A critical review. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2013 , 12 , 296–313. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Blum, M.S. The limits of entomophagy: A discretionary gourmand in a world of toxic insects. Food Insects Newsl. 1994 , 7 , 1–6. [ Google Scholar ]
• Klunder, H.C.; Wolkers-Rooijackers, J.C.M.; Korpela, J.M.; Nout, M.J.R. Microbiological aspects of processing and storage of edible insects. Food Control 2012 , 26 , 628–631. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Nelson, W.; Harris, B. Flies, fingers, fomites, and food. Campylo-bacteriosis in New Zealand food-associated rather than food-borne. N. Z. Med. J. 2006 , 119 , U2128. [ Google Scholar ] [ PubMed ]
• Ahmad, A.; Nagaraja, T.G.; Zurek, L. Transmission of Escherichia coli O157:H7 to cattle by house flies. Prev. Vet. Med. 2007 , 80 , 74–81. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Sobur, A.; Haque, Z.F.; Sabuj, A.A.; Ievy, S.; Rahman, A.T.; El Zowalaty, M.E.; Rahman, T. Molecular detection of multidrug and colistin-resistant Escherichia coli isolated from house flies in various environmental settings. Future Microbiol. 2019 , 14 , 847–858. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Sobur, A.; Hasan, M.; Haque, E.; Mridul, A.I.; Noreddin, A.; El Zowalaty, M.E.; Rahman, T. Molecular Detection and Antibiotyping of Multidrug-Resistant Salmonella Isolated from Houseflies in a Fish Market. Pathogens 2019 , 8 , 191. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Wilson, M.E.; Lorente, C.A.; Allen, J.E.; Eberhard, M.L. Gongylonema infection of the mouth in a resident of Cambridge, MA. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2001 , 32 , 1378–1380. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Graczyk, T.K.; Knight, R.; Tamang, L. Mechanical transmission of human protozoan parasites by insects. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2005 , 18 , 128–132. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• World Health Organization. Emerging Zoonoses. Available online: https://www.who.int/zoonoses/emerging_zoonoses/en/ (accessed on 18 July 2020).
• Woolhouse, M.E.; Gowtage-Sequeria, S. Host range and emerging and reemerging pathogens. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2005 , 11 , 1842–1847. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lindahl, J.F.; Grace, D. The consequences of human actions on risks for infectious diseases: A review. Infect. Ecol. Epidemiol. 2015 , 5 , 30048. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Kruse, H.; Kirkemo, A.M.; Handeland, K. Wildlife as source of zoonotic infections. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2004 , 10 , 2067–2072. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cutler, S.J.; Fooks, A.R.; Van der Poel, W.H. Public health threat of new, reemerging, and neglected zoonoses in the industrialized world. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2010 , 16 , 1–7. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liu, Q.; Cao, L.; Zhu, X.Q. Major emerging and re-emerging zoonoses in China: A matter of global health and socioeconomic development for 1.3 billion. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2014 , 25 , 65–72. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Bao, M.; Pierce, G.J.; Pascual, S.; González-Muñoz, M.; Mattiucci, S.; Mladineo, I.; Cipriani, P.; Bušelić, I.; Strachan, N.J. Assessing the risk of an emerging zoonosis of worldwide concern: Anisakiasis. Sci. Rep. 2017 , 7 , 43699. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Naicker, P.R. The impact of climate change and other factors on zoonotic diseases. Arch. Clin. Microbiol. 2011 , 2 , 2–7. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jones, K.E.; Patel, N.G.; Levy, M.A.; Storeygard, A.; Balk, D.; Gittleman, J.L.; Daszak, P. Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature 2008 , 451 , 990–993. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Wang, Y.; Wang, Y.; Chen, Y.; Qin, Q. Unique epidemiological and clinical features of the emerging 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) implicate special control measures. J. Med. Virol. 2020 , 92 , 568–576. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Yu, X.J.; Liang, M.F.; Zhang, S.Y.; Liu, Y.; Li, J.D.; Sun, Y.L.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, Q.F.; Popov, V.L.; Li, C.; et al. Fever with thrombocytopenia associated with a novel bunyavirus in China. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011 , 364 , 1523–1532. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Tran, X.C.; Yun, Y.; Le Van An, S.H.K.; Thao, N.T.P.; Man, P.K.C.; Yoo, J.R.; Heo, S.T.; Cho, N.H.; Lee, K.H. Endemic severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome, Vietnam. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2019 , 25 , 1029–1031. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Li, H.; Lu, Q.B.; Xing, B.; Zhang, S.F.; Liu, K.; Du, J.; Li, X.K.; Cui, N.; Yang, Z.D.; Wang, L.Y.; et al. Epidemiological and clinical features of laboratory-diagnosed severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome in China, 2011–2017: A prospective observational study. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2018 , 18 , 1127–1137. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bao, C.J.; Guo, X.L.; Qi, X.; Hu, J.L.; Zhou, M.H.; Varma, J.K.; Cui, L.B.; Yang, H.T.; Jiao, Y.J.; Klena, J.D.; et al. A family cluster of infections by a newly recognized bunyavirus in eastern China, 2007: Further evidence of person-to-person transmission. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2011 , 53 , 1208–1214. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Park, S.J.; Kim, Y.I.; Park, A.; Kwon, H.I.; Kim, E.H.; Si, Y.J.; Song, M.S.; Lee, C.H.; Jung, K.; Shin, W.J.; et al. Ferret animal model of severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome phlebovirus for human lethal infection and pathogenesis. Nature Microbiol. 2019 , 4 , 438–446. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cui, F.; Cao, H.X.; Wang, L.; Zhang, S.F.; Ding, S.J.; Yu, X.J.; Yu, H. Clinical and epidemiological study on severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome in Yiyuan County, Shandong Province, China. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2013 , 88 , 510–512. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Takahashi, T.; Maeda, K.; Suzuki, T.; Ishido, A.; Shigeoka, T.; Tominaga, T.; Kamei, T.; Honda, M.; Ninomiya, D.; Sakai, T.; et al. The first identification and retrospective study of severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome in Japan. J. Infect. Dis. 2014 , 209 , 816–827. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Kim, K.H.; Yi, J.; Kim, G.; Choi, S.J.; Jun, K.I.; Kim, N.H.; Choe, P.G.; Kim, N.J.; Lee, J.K.; Oh, M.D. Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome, South Korea, 2012. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2013 , 19 , 1892–1894. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• McMullan, L.K.; Folk, S.M.; Kelly, A.J.; MacNeil, A.; Goldsmith, C.S.; Metcalfe, M.G.; Batten, B.C.; Albariño, C.G.; Zaki, S.R.; Rollin, P.E.; et al. A new phlebovirus associated with severe febrile illness in Missouri. N. Engl. J. Med. 2012 , 367 , 834–841. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Lee, J.; Chowell, G.; Jung, E. A dynamic compartmental model for the Middle East respiratory syndrome outbreak in the Republic of Korea: A retrospective analysis on control interventions and superspreading events. J. Theor. Biol. 2016 , 408 , 118–126. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Hui, D.S. Epidemic and emerging coronaviruses (severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome). Clin. Chest Med. 2017 , 38 , 71–86. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Perlman, S. Another decade, another coronavirus. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020 , 382 , 760–762. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• de Wit, E.; Feldmann, F.; Cronin, J.; Jordan, R.; Okumura, A.; Thomas, T.; Scott, D.; Cihlar, T.; Feldmann, H. Prophylactic and therapeutic remdesivir (GS-5734) treatment in the rhesus macaque model of MERS-CoV infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2020 , 117 , 6771–6776. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Wernery, U.; Lau, S.K.; Woo, P.C. Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) coronavirus and dromedaries. Vet. J. 2017 , 220 , 75–79. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Schwartz, D.A.; Graham, A.L. Potential maternal and infant outcomes from (Wuhan) coronavirus 2019-nCoV infecting pregnant women: Lessons from SARS, MERS, and other human coronavirus infections. Viruses 2020 , 12 , 194. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Thompson, R.A.; Polley, L. Parasitology and one health. Int. J. Parasitol. Parasites Wildl. 2014 , 3 , A1–A2. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Thompson, R.A. Parasite zoonoses and wildlife: One health, spillover and human activity. Int. J. Parasitol. 2013 , 43 , 1079–1088. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Aguirre, A.A. Changing patterns of emerging zoonotic diseases in wildlife, domestic animals, and humans linked to biodiversity loss and globalization. ILAR J. 2017 , 58 , 315–318. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Akter, M.; Islam, M.S.; Islam, M.A.; Sobur, M.A.; Jahan, M.S.; Rahman, S.; Nazir, K.N.H.; Rahman, M.T. Migratory birds as the potential source for the transmission of Aspergillus and other fungus to Bangladesh. J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res. 2020 , 7 , 338–344. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Bengis, R.G.; Leighton, F.A.; Fischer, J.R.; Artois, M.; Morner, T.; Tate, C.M. The role of wildlife in emerging and re-emerging zoonoses. Rev. Sci. Tech. OIE. 2004 , 23 , 497–512. [ Google Scholar ]
• Williams, E.S.; Yuill, T.; Artois, M.; Fischer, J.; Haigh, S.A. Emerging infectious diseases in wildlife. Rev. Sci. Tech. OIE. 2002 , 21 , 139–158. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cupertino, M.C.; Resende, M.B.; Mayer, N.A.; Carvalho, L.M.; Siqueira-Batista, R. Emerging and re-emerging human infectious diseases: A systematic review of the role of wild animals with a focus on public health impact. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med. 2020 , 13 , 99–106. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cunningham, A.A.; Daszak, P.; Wood, J.L.N. One health, emerging infectious diseases and wildlife: Two decades of progress? Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 2018 , 372 , 20160167. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Reperant, L.A.; Mackenzie, J.; Osterhaus, A.D.M.E. Periodic global one health threats update. One Health 2016 , 2 , 1–7. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Daszak, P.; Cunningham, A.A.; Hyatt, A.D. Anthropogenic environmental change and the emergence of infectious diseases in wildlife. Acta. Trop. 2001 , 78 , 103–116. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Martinez, E.; Cesário, C.; Silva, I.O.; Boere, V. Domestic dogs in rural area of fragmented atlantic forest: Potential threats to wild animals. Cienc. Rural 2013 , 43 , 111–222. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Fehr, A.R.; Perlman, S. Coronaviruses: An overview of their replication and pathogenesis. In Coronaviruses ; Humana Press: Totowa, NJ, USA, 2015; Volume 1282, pp. 1–23. [ Google Scholar ]
• Li, G.; Fan, Y.; Lai, Y.; Han, T.; Li, Z.; Zhou, P.; Pan, P.; Wang, W.; Hu, D.; Liu, X.; et al. Coronavirus infections and immune responses. J. Med. Virol. 2020 , 92 , 424–432. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Lam, T.T.Y.; Jia, N.; Zhang, Y.W.; Shum, M.H.H.; Jiang, J.F.; Zhu, H.C.; Tong, Y.G.; Shi, Y.X.; Ni, X.B.; Liao, Y.S.; et al. Identifying SARS-CoV-2-related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins. Nature 2020 , 583 , 282–285. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Channappanavar, R.; Perlman, S. Pathogenic human coronavirus infections: Causes and consequences of cytokine storm and immunopathology. Semin. Immunopathol. 2017 , 39 , 529–539. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Rahman, T.; Sobur, A.; Islam, S.; Toniolo, A.; Nazir, K.N.H. Is the COVID-19 pandemic masking dengue epidemic in Bangladesh? J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res. 2020 , 7 , 218–219. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Weekly Epidemiological Update and Weekly Operational Update. Available online: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200831-weekly-epi-update-3.pdf?sfvrsn=d7032a2a_4 (accessed on 31 August 2020).
• Corman, V.M.; Baldwin, H.J.; Tateno, A.F.; Zerbinati, R.M.; Annan, A.; Owusu, M.; Nkrumah, E.E.; Maganga, G.D.; Oppong, S.; Adu-Sarkodie, Y.; et al. Evidence for an ancestral association of human coronavirus 229E with bats. J. Virol. 2015 , 89 , 11858–11870. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Tao, Y.; Shi, M.; Chommanard, C.; Queen, K.; Zhang, J.; Markotter, W.; Kuzmin, I.V.; Holmes, E.C.; Tong, S. Surveillance of bat coronaviruses in Kenya identifies relatives of human coronaviruses NL63 and 229E and their recombination history. J. Virol. 2017 , 91 , e01953-16. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Corman, V.M.; Eckerle, I.; Memish, Z.A.; Liljander, A.M.; Dijkman, R.; Jonsdottir, H.; Ngeiywa, K.J.J.; Kamau, E.; Younan, M.; Al Masri, M.; et al. Link of a ubiquitous human coronavirus to dromedary camels. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2016 , 113 , 9864–9869. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Hamre, D.; Procknow, J.J. A new virus isolated from the human respiratory tract. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 1966 , 121 , 190–193. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• McIntosh, K.; Dees, J.H.; Becker, W.B.; Kapikian, A.Z.; Chanock, R.M. Recovery in tracheal organ cultures of novel viruses from patients with respiratory disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1967 , 57 , 933–940. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Tyrrell, D.A.J.; Cohen, S.; Schilarb, J.E. Signs and symptoms in common colds. Epidemiol. Infect. 1993 , 111 , 143–156. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Bradburne, A.F.; Bynoe, M.L.; Tyrrell, D.A. Effects of a “new” human respiratory virus in volunteers. Br. Med. J. 1967 , 3 , 767–769. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Donaldson, E.F.; Haskew, A.N.; Gates, J.E.; Huynh, J.; Moore, C.J.; Frieman, M.B. Metagenomic analysis of the viromes of three North American bat species: Viral diversity among different bat species that share a common habitat. J. Virol. 2010 , 84 , 13004–13018. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Huynh, J.; Li, S.; Yount, B.; Smith, A.; Sturges, L.; Olsen, J.C.; Nagel, J.; Johnson, J.B.; Agnihothram, S.; Gates, J.E.; et al. Evidence supporting a zoonotic origin of human coronavirus strain NL63. J. Virol. 2012 , 86 , 12816–12825. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Van Der Hoek, L.; Pyrc, K.; Jebbink, M.F.; Vermeulen-Oost, W.; Berkhout, R.J.; Wolthers, K.C.; Wertheim-van Dillen, P.M.; Kaandorp, J.; Spaargaren, J.; Berkhout, B. Identification of a new human coronavirus. Nat. Med. 2004 , 10 , 368–373. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Abdul-Rasool, S.; Fielding, B.C. Understanding human coronavirus HCoV-NL63. Open Virol. J. 2010 , 4 , 76–84. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Fouchier, R.A.; Hartwig, N.G.; Bestebroer, T.M.; Niemeyer, B.; De Jong, J.C.; Simon, J.H.; Osterhaus, A.D. A previously undescribed coronavirus associated with respiratory disease in humans. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2004 , 101 , 6212–6216. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Van Der Hoek, L.; Sure, K.; Ihorst, G.; Stang, A.; Pyrc, K.; Jebbink, M.F.; Petersen, G.; Forster, J.; Berkhout, B.; Überla, K. Croup is associated with the novel coronavirus NL63. PLoS Med. 2005 , 2 , e240. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cui, J.; Li, F.; Shi, Z.L. Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2019 , 17 , 181–192. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Woo, P.C.; Lau, S.K.; Chu, C.M.; Chan, K.H.; Tsoi, H.W.; Huang, Y.; Wong, B.H.; Poon, R.W.; Cai, J.J.; Luk, W.K.; et al. Characterization and complete genome sequence of a novel coronavirus, coronavirus HKU1, from patients with pneumonia. J. Virol. 2005 , 79 , 884–895. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Lau, S.K.; Woo, P.C.; Yip, C.C.; Tse, H.; Tsoi, H.W.; Cheng, V.C.; Lee, P.; Tang, B.S.; Cheung, C.H.; Lee, R.A.; et al. Coronavirus HKU1 and other coronavirus infections in Hong Kong. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2006 , 44 , 2063–2071. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Prevalence of IgG antibody to SARS-associated coronavirus in animal traders—Guangdong Province, China, 2003. MMWR. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2003 , 52 , 986–987. [ Google Scholar ]
• Guan, Y.; Zheng, B.J.; He, Y.Q.; Liu, X.L.; Zhuang, Z.X.; Cheung, C.L.; Luo, S.W.; Li, P.H.; Zhang, L.J.; Guan, Y.J.; et al. Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China. Science 2003 , 302 , 276–278. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Poon, L.L.; Chu, D.K.; Chan, K.H.; Wong, O.K.; Ellis, T.M.; Leung, Y.H.C.; Lau, S.K.; Woo, P.C.Y.; Suen, K.Y.; Yuen, K.Y.; et al. Identification of a novel coronavirus in bats. J. Virol. 2005 , 79 , 2001–2009. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Tu, C.; Crameri, G.; Kong, X.; Chen, J.; Sun, Y.; Yu, M.; Xiang, H.; Xia, X.; Liu, S.; Ren, T.; et al. Antibodies to SARS coronavirus in civets. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2004 , 10 , 2244–2248. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lau, S.K.; Woo, P.C.; Li, K.S.; Huang, Y.; Tsoi, H.W.; Wong, B.H.; Wong, S.S.; Leung, S.Y.; Chan, K.H.; Yuen, K.Y. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-like virus in Chinese horseshoe bats. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2005 , 102 , 14040–14045. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Li, W.; Shi, Z.; Yu, M.; Ren, W.; Smith, C.; Epstein, J.H.; Wang, H.; Crameri, G.; Hu, Z.; Zhang, H.; et al. Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses. Science 2005 , 310 , 676–679. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ge, X.Y.; Li, J.L.; Yang, X.L.; Chmura, A.A.; Zhu, G.; Epstein, J.H.; Mazet, J.K.; Hu, B.; Zhang, W.; Peng, C.; et al. Isolation and characterization of a bat SARS-like coronavirus that uses the ACE2 receptor. Nature 2013 , 503 , 535–538. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• van Boheemen, S.; de Graaf, M.; Lauber, C.; Bestebroer, T.M.; Raj, V.S.; Zaki, A.M.; Osterhaus, A.D.; Haagmans, B.L.; Gorbalenya, A.E.; Snijder, E.J.; et al. Genomic characterization of a newly discovered coronavirus associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome in humans. MBio 2012 , 3 , e00473-12. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Cotten, M.; Lam, T.T.; Watson, S.J.; Palser, A.L.; Petrova, V.; Grant, P.; Pybus, O.G.; Rambaut, A.; Guan, Y.; Pillay, D.; et al. Full-genome deep sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of novel human betacoronavirus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2013 , 19 , 736–742. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Annan, A.; Baldwin, H.J.; Corman, V.M.; Klose, S.M.; Owusu, M.; Nkrumah, E.E.; Badu, E.K.; Anti, P.; Agbenyega, O.; Meyer, B.; et al. Human betacoronavirus 2c EMC/2012–related viruses in bats, Ghana and Europe. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2013 , 19 , 456–459. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Lau, S.K.; Zhang, L.; Luk, H.K.; Xiong, L.; Peng, X.; Li, K.S.; He, X.; Zhao, P.S.H.; Fan, R.Y.; Wong, A.C.; et al. Receptor usage of a novel bat lineage C betacoronavirus reveals evolution of Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus spike proteins for human dipeptidyl peptidase 4 binding. J. Infect. Dis. 2018 , 218 , 197–207. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Luo, C.M.; Wang, N.; Yang, X.L.; Liu, H.Z.; Zhang, W.; Li, B.; Hu, B.; Peng, C.; Geng, Q.B.; Zhu, G.J.; et al. Discovery of novel bat coronaviruses in South China that use the same receptor as Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J. Virol. 2018 , 92 , e00116-18. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Reusken, C.B.; Haagmans, B.L.; Müller, M.A.; Gutierrez, C.; Godeke, G.J.; Meyer, B.; Muth, D.; Raj, V.S.; Smits-De Vries, L.; Corman, V.M.; et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus neutralising serum antibodies in dromedary camels: A comparative serological study. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2013 , 13 , 859–866. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Chan, J.F.; Lau, S.K.; To, K.K.; Cheng, V.C.; Woo, P.C.; Yuen, K.Y. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: Another zoonotic betacoronavirus causing SARS-like disease. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2015 , 28 , 465–522. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Raj, V.S.; Farag, E.A.; Reusken, C.B.; Lamers, M.M.; Pas, S.D.; Voermans, J.; Smits, S.L.; Osterhaus, A.D.; Al-Mawlawi, N.; Al-Romaihi, H.E.; et al. Isolation of MERS coronavirus from a dromedary camel, Qatar, 2014. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2014 , 20 , 1339–1342. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Adney, D.R.; Letko, M.; Ragan, I.K.; Scott, D.; van Doremalen, N.; Bowen, R.A.; Munster, V.J. Bactrian camels shed large quantities of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) after experimental infection. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2019 , 8 , 717–723. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Samara, E.M.; Abdoun, K.A. Concerns about misinterpretation of recent scientific data implicating dromedary camels in epidemiology of Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). MBio 2014 , 5 , e01430-14. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Hilgenfeld, R.; Peiris, M. From SARS to MERS: 10 years of research on highly pathogenic human coronaviruses. Antivir. Res. 2013 , 100 , 286–295. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gao, H.; Yao, H.; Yang, S.; Li, L. From SARS to MERS: Evidence and speculation. Front. Med. 2016 , 10 , 377–382. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Coleman, C.M.; Frieman, M.B. Emergence of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. PLoS Pathog. 2013 , 9 , e1003595. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Zhou, P.; Yang, X.L.; Wang, X.G.; Hu, B.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, W.; Si, H.R.; Zhu, Y.; Li, B.; Huang, C.L.; et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 2020 , 579 , 270–273. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Huang, C.; Wang, Y.; Li, X.; Ren, L.; Zhao, J.; Hu, Y.; Zhang, L.; Fan, G.; Xu, J.; Gu, X.; et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020 , 395 , 497–506. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Islam, M.S.; Sobur, M.A.; Akter, M.; Nazir, K.N.H.; Toniolo, A.; Rahman, M.T. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, lessons to be learned! J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res. 2020 , 7 , 260–280. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hossain, M.G.; Akter, S.; Saha, S. SARS-CoV-2 host diversity: An update of natural infections and experimental evidences. J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. 2020 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Maudlin, I.; Eisler, M.C.; Welburn, S.C. Neglected and endemic zoonoses. Philos. Trans. R. SocLond. B. Biol. Sci. 2009 , 364 , 2777–2787. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• World Health Organization. ICONZ—Integrated Control of Neglected Zoonotic Diseases & United Kingdom. Dept for International Development Research in Use. The Control of Neglected Zoonotic Diseases: Community Based Interventions for NZDs Prevention and Control: Report of the Third Conference Organized with ICONZ, DFID-RiU, SOS, EU, TDR and FAO with the Participation of ILRI and OIE: 23–24 November 2010 ; World Health Organization; WHO Heaquarters: Geneva, Switzerland, 2011. [ Google Scholar ]
• World Health Organization. World Health Assembly Adopts Resolution on Neglected Tropical Diseases. Available online: https://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/WHA_66_seventh_day_resolution_adopted/en/ (accessed on 18 July 2020).
• Mrzljak, A.; Novak, R.; Pandak, N.; Tabain, I.; Franusic, L.; Barbic, L.; Bogdanic, M.; Savic, V.; Mikulic, D.; Pavicic-Saric, J.; et al. Emerging and neglected zoonoses in transplant population. World J. Transplant. 2020 , 10 , 47–63. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Elelu, N.; Aiyedun, J.O.; Mohammed, I.G.; Oludairo, O.O.; Odetokun, I.A.; Mohammed, K.M.; Bale, J.O.; Nuru, S. Neglected zoonotic diseases in Nigeria: Role of the public health veterinarian. Pan Afr. Med. J. 2019 , 32 , 36. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• World Health Organization. Neglected Tropical Diseases. Available online: https://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/zoonoses/en/ (accessed on 18 July 2020).
• Meslin, F.X. Impact of zoonoses on human health. Vet. Ital. 2006 , 42 , 369–379. [ Google Scholar ]
• ARÁMBULO III, P.V.; Thakur, A.S. Impact of zoonoses in tropical America. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1992 , 653 , 6–18. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cascio, A.; Bosilkovski, M.; Rodriguez-Morales, A.J.; Pappas, G. The socio-ecology of zoonotic infections. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2011 , 17 , 336–342. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Bennett, R.; IJpelaar, J. Updated estimates of the costs associated with thirty four endemic livestock diseases in Great Britain: A note. J. Agric. Econ. 2005 , 56 , 135–144. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Martins, S.; Häsler, B.; Rushton, J. Economic Aspects of Zoonoses: Impact of Zoonoses on the Food Industry. In Zoonoses—Infections Affecting Humans and Animals ; Sing, A., Ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2015; pp. 1107–1126. [ Google Scholar ]
• World Bank. People, Pathogens and Our Planet: The Economics of One Health ; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2012; Available online: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2012/06/16360943/peoplepathogens-planet-economics-one-health (accessed on 20 July 2020).
• MARSH Report. The Economic and Social Impact of Emerging Infectious Disease. Available online: http://www.healthcare.philips.com/main/shared/assets/documents/bioshield/ecoandsocialimpactofemerginginfectiousdisease_111208.pdf (accessed on 24 August 2020).
• Keusch, G.T.; Pappaioanou, M.; Gonzalez, M.C.; Scott, K.A.; Tsai, P. National Research Council. Sustaining Global Surveillance and response to emerging zoonotic diseases. In Committee on Achieving Sustainable Global Capacity for Surveillance and Response to Emerging Diseases of Zoonotic Origin ; The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2009. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rassy, D.; Smith, R.D. The economic impact of H1N1 on Mexico’s tourist and pork sectors. Health Econ. 2013 , 22 , 824–834. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Wright, C. A good example of successful crisis management: The avian influenza outbreak in Chile-What actually happened and what can be learned from their experience. Poult. Int. 2004 , 43 , 34–39. [ Google Scholar ]
• Burroughs, T.; Knobler, S.; Lederberg, J. The emergence of zoonotic diseases: Understanding the impact on animal and human health: Workshop summary. In the Emergence of Zoonotic Diseases: Understanding the Impact on Animal and Human Health: Workshop Summary ; Burroughs, T., Knobler, S., Lederberg, J., Eds.; National Academy Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2002. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mitura, V.; Di Piétro, L. Canada’s beef cattle sector and the impact of BSE on farm family income 2000–2003. In Agriculture and Rural Working Paper Series Working Paper No. 69 ; Canada Statistics, Agricultural Division: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 2004. [ Google Scholar ]
• Coffey, B.; Mintert, J.; Fox, S.; Schroeder, T.; Valentin, L. Economic Impact of BSE on the US Beef Industry: Product Value Losses, Regulatory Costs and Consumer Reactions ; Kansas State University: Kansas, MO, USA, 2005. [ Google Scholar ]
• Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The Monetary Impact of Zoonotic Diseases on Society, Evidence from Three Zoonoses in Kenya. Available online: http://www.fao.org/3/i8968en/I8968EN.pdf (accessed on 24 August 2020).
• Samartino, L.E. Brucellosis in Argentina. Vet. Microbiol. 2002 , 90 , 71–80. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ajogi, I. Settling the nomads in Wase and Wawa-Zange grazing reserves in the Sudan savannah zone of Nigeria IV: Strategies for the control of bovine brucellosis. Niger. Vet. J. 1998 , 19 , 40–48. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ozili, P.K.; Arun, T. Spillover of COVID-19: Impact on the Global Economy. Available at SSRN 3562570. 2020. Available online: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3562570 (accessed on 24 August 2020).
• The World Bank. The Global Economic Outlook during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Changed World. Available online: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2020/06/08/the-global-economic-outlook-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-a-changed-world (accessed on 24 August 2020).
• Bidaisee, S.; Macpherson, C.N. Zoonoses and one health: A review of the literature. J. Parasitol. Res. 2014 , 2014 , 874345. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Al-Tayib, O.A. An overview of the most significant zoonotic viral pathogens transmitted from animal to human in Saudi Arabia. Pathogens 2019 , 8 , 25. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Ng, V.; Sargeant, J.M. A quantitative approach to the prioritization of zoonotic diseases in North America: A health professionals’ perspective. PLoS ONE 2013 , 8 , e72172. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Aenishaenslin, C.; Hongoh, V.; Cissé, H.D.; Hoen, A.G.; Samoura, K.; Michel, P.; Waaub, J.P.; Bélanger, D. Multi-criteria decision analysis as an innovative approach to managing zoonoses: Results from a study on Lyme disease in Canada. BMC Public Health 2013 , 13 , 897. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Van der Giessen, J.W.B.; van De Giessen, A.W.; Braks, M.A.H. Emerging Zoonoses: Early Warning and Surveillance in the Netherlands ; RIVM: Utrecht, The Netherlands, 2010. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chomel, B.B. Control and prevention of emerging parasitic zoonoses. Int. J. Parasitol. 2008 , 38 , 1211–1217. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Hassell, J.M.; Begon, M.; Ward, M.J.; Fèvre, E.M. Urbanization and disease emergence: Dynamics at the wildlife–livestock–human interface. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2017 , 32 , 55–67. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Rahman, M.T. Chikungunya virus infection in developing countries-What should we do? J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res. 2017 , 4 , 125–131. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Murphy, S.C.; Negron, M.E.; Pieracci, E.G.; Deressa, A.; Bekele, W.; Regassa, F.; Wassie, B.A.; Afera, B.; Hajito, K.W.; Walelign, E.; et al. One Health collaborations for zoonotic disease control in Ethiopia. Rev. Sci. Tech. 2019 , 38 , 51–60. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pal, M.; Gebrezabiher, W.; Rahman, M.T. The roles of veterinary, medical and environmental professionals to achieve One Health. J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res. 2014 , 1 , 148–155. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gibbs, E.P.J. The evolution of One Health: A decade of progress and challenges for the future. Vet. Rec. 2014 , 174 , 85–91. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Dahal, R.; Kahn, L. Zoonotic diseases and one health approach. Epidemiology 2014 , 10 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• One Health. One Health Commission. Available online: http://www.onehealthcommission.org/ (accessed on 19 July 2020).
• Okello, A.L.; Gibbs, E.P.J.; Vandersmissen, A.; Welburn, S.C. One Health and the neglected zoonoses: Turning rhetoric into reality. Vet. Rec. 2011 , 169 , 281–285. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• CDC-One health. One Health Zoonotic Disease Prioritization (OHZDP). Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/onehealth/what-we-do/zoonotic-disease-prioritization/index.html (accessed on 19 July 2020).
• Pulliam, J.R.; Epstein, J.H.; Dushoff, J.; Rahman, S.A.; Bunning, M.; Jamaluddin, A.A.; Hyatt, A.D.; Field, H.E.; Dobson, A.P.; Daszak, P. Agricultural intensification, priming for persistence and the emergence of Nipah virus: A lethal bat-borne zoonosis. J. R. Soc. Interface 2012 , 9 , 89–101. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Cardiff, R.D.; Ward, J.M.; Barthold, S.W. ‘One medicine—One pathology’: Are veterinary and human pathology prepared? Lab. Invest. 2008 , 88 , 18–26. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Pieracci, E.G.; Hall, A.J.; Gharpure, R.; Haile, A.; Walelign, E.; Deressa, A.; Bahiru, G.; Kibebe, M.; Walke, H.; Belay, E. Prioritizing zoonotic diseases in Ethiopia using a one health approach. One Health 2016 , 2 , 131–135. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

Rahman, M.T.; Sobur, M.A.; Islam, M.S.; Ievy, S.; Hossain, M.J.; El Zowalaty, M.E.; Rahman, A.T.; Ashour, H.M. Zoonotic Diseases: Etiology, Impact, and Control. Microorganisms 2020 , 8 , 1405. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8091405

Rahman MT, Sobur MA, Islam MS, Ievy S, Hossain MJ, El Zowalaty ME, Rahman AT, Ashour HM. Zoonotic Diseases: Etiology, Impact, and Control. Microorganisms . 2020; 8(9):1405. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8091405

Rahman, Md. Tanvir, Md. Abdus Sobur, Md. Saiful Islam, Samina Ievy, Md. Jannat Hossain, Mohamed E. El Zowalaty, AMM Taufiquer Rahman, and Hossam M. Ashour. 2020. "Zoonotic Diseases: Etiology, Impact, and Control" Microorganisms 8, no. 9: 1405. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8091405

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts

Collection  30 May 2022

Zoonotic diseases

Zoonotic diseases, or zoonoses, are various kinds of illnesses caused by pathogens that jumped from non-human animals to humans. Zoonoses can be highly infectious and deadly, representing a serious public health problem around the world, disrupting individual well-being and societies as a whole. They may become even more of a threat under future climate scenarios and if habitat loss is not halted, increasing the chances of contact between humans and wildlife.

This Collection welcomes studies providing the latest insights on zoonotic disease emergence and spread, pathogen life cycles, development of new treatments and vaccines, preventive healthcare, and many other aspects from a variety of fields.

Neil A. Mabbott

The Roslin Institute, United Kingdom

Stephan Pleschka

Justus Liebig University, Germany

University of Minnesota Twin Cities, United States

• Collection content
• How to submit
• About the Guest Editors
• Collection policies

Geography and prevalence of rickettsial infections in Northern Tamil Nadu, India: a cross-sectional study

• Solomon D’Cruz
• Susmitha Karunasree Perumalla
• John Antony Jude Prakash

Anti- Toxoplasma gondii activity of Trametes versicolor (Turkey tail) mushroom extract

• Homa Nath Sharma
• Jonathan Catrett
• Daniel A. Abugri

Anti-HEV seroprevalence and rate of viremia in a German cohort of dogs, cats, and horses

• E. V. Knoop

Pathogenic Leptospira are widespread in the urban wildlife of southern California

• Sarah K. Helman
• Amanda F. N. Tokuyama
• James O. Lloyd-Smith

It’s about time: small mammal communities and Lyme disease emergence

• S. S. T. Leo
• A. Gonzalez

Multiple factors affecting Ixodes ricinus ticks and associated pathogens in European temperate ecosystems (northeastern France)

• Nathalie Boulanger
• Delphine Aran
• Pascale Bauda

Molecular detection and identification of hemotropic Mycoplasma species in dogs and their ectoparasites in Iran

• Ali Goudarztalejerdi
• Alireza Sazmand

Global and local drivers of Echinococcus multilocularis infection in the western Balkan region

• Sibusiso Moloi
• Ágnes Csivincsik

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

• What is One Health?
• Center Members
• Zoonotic infectious disease
• Health of Animal Workers
• Antimicrobial resistance
• The Human-Animal-Nature Bond
• Animals as Sentinels of Environmental Health Hazards
• University courses
• Medical training
• Continuing education
• One Health Clinic
• Zoonotic Disease Clinic
• Resources for Animal Workers
• Cohere guidelines
• COVID-19 and Pet Resources

Zoonotic Disease Research and Training

Zoonotic diseases (transmitted between animals and humans) are increasing in importance as a threat to global health security. In recent decades, more than two thirds of emerging infectious diseases have been zoonoses, including Ebola, pandemic H1N1 influenza and highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). Such outbreaks have caused thousands of deaths and economic losses in the billions. There is a critical and unprecedented need to more effectively anticipate, prevent and manage zoonotic disease threats.

The UW Center for One Health Research conducts cutting-edge zoonotic disease research and training using a “One Health” approach that considers human, animal, and environmental drivers of zoonotic disease.

Current projects include:

• Detection and prevention of zoonotic disease transmission risk to animal workers
• Microbiome and Microbial transmission between people living closely with livestock
• Mapping and predicting the spread of zoonotic influenza
• Human health impact of zoonotic diseases: innovative approaches for enhanced diagnosis and prevention in high risk groups
• Integrated surveillance for antibiotic resistance in humans, animals and the environment.

• Advanced search
• Peer review

2023 Scopus CiteScore  is  2.3 , SNIP  0.757 , ranking  15/35  in Category "Veterinary (Miscellaneous)" and 219/344 "Medicine (Infectious Diseases)".  

Interested in becoming a Zoonoses published author? Check out the call for papers on our website https://zoonoses-journal.org/index.php/2023/04/26/zoonoses-call-for-papers-2/

• Platinum Open Access with no APCs & Fast peer review/Fast publication online after article acceptance

• 986 Zika Virus Overview: Transmission, Origin, Pathogenesis, Animal Model and Diagnosis
• 987 Genome Characterization and Potential Risk Assessment of the Novel SARS-CoV-2 Variant Omicron (B.1.1.529)
• 988 Bacterial Microbiota in Unfed Ticks ( Dermacentor nuttalli ) From Xinjiang Detected Through 16S rDNA Amplicon Sequencing and Culturomics
• 989 Zoonotic Transmission and Host Switches of Malaria Parasites
• 990 Pattern Recognition Receptors in Innate Immunity to Obligate Intracellular Bacteria
• 991 The Immungenicity and Cross-Neutralizing Activity of Enterovirus 71 Vaccine Candidate Strains
• 992 Dynamic Surveillance of Mosquitoes and Their Viromes in Wuhan During 2020
• 993 Variants of SARS Coronavirus-2 and Their Potential Impact on the Future of the COVID-19 Pandemic
• 994 Analysis of Intermediate Hosts and Susceptible Animals of SARS-CoV-2 by Computational Methods
• 995 SARS-CoV-2 Lambda Variant: Spatiotemporal Distribution and Potential Public Health Impact
• 996 Dynamic Changes in Chest CT Images Over 167 Days in 11 Patients with COVID-19: A Case Series and Literature Review
• 997 Rapid Global Spread of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta (B.1.617.2) Variant: Spatiotemporal Variation and Public Health Impact
• 998 Malaria-free Certification in China: Achievements and Lessons Learned from the National Malaria Elimination Programme
• 999 Emerging and Re-emerging Zoonoses are Major and Global Challenges for Public Health
• Record : found
• Abstract : found
• Article : found

Emerging and Re-emerging Zoonoses are Major and Global Challenges for Public Health

• Download PDF
• Review article
• Invite someone to review

Main article text

Zoonotic diseases, or zoonoses, are generally referred to those bacterial, parasitic, viral, and fungal infections that can be transmitted from wild and/or domesticated animals to humans via infected vectors (mosquito, sandfly, tick, etc.) or direct contact [ 1 ]. A wide range of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases has become a major threat to human health, approximately 75% of which are zoonoses. Examples of vector-transmitted zoonoses include plague, malaria, dengue, yellow fever, and West Nile [ 2 ]. Despite of decades of research and extensive investment, malaria, AIDS, and tuberculosis still cause thousands of deaths worldwide [ 3 ].

Zoonoses also affect wild or domestic animals and household pets in the context of human health. One example is the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle and its related Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in humans in the UK and other European countries during last century [ 4 – 6 ]. The subsequent severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) outbreaks and their successful control re-emphasized the need for sharing cutting-edge findings and knowledge from basic, clinical, and field research at the international level [ 7 , 8 ]. Numerous surveillance systems and control strategies have been implemented under the frameworks of the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) for the prevention and control of infectious diseases, for public awareness of the health risk of zoonoses.

The reconstruction of human and animal public health systems worldwide and the development of modern technologies for pathogen identification and tracking have greatly strengthened the understanding and control of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. The examples include, but are not limited to, new serotypes of avian influenza, novel variants of Bunyaviridae that causes severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome, Ebola viral disease, Zika virus disease, Streptococcus suis , Escherichia coli O104, and trypanosomiasis, some of which have caused regional epidemic or pandemic [ 9 ]. Before 2019, the WHO declared five Public Health of Emergency of International Concerns (PHEIC) as the major public health challenges, including novel H1N1 influenza pandemic (2009), wild-type poliovirus (2014), Ebola virus disease in West Africa (2014), Zika virus disease (2016), and Ebola virus disease in the Democratic Republic of Congo (2019). In late 2019, a new coronavirus [severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)]-associated respiratory infectious disease, coronavirus (COVID-19) emerged [ 10 ]; this virus and its mutants have evolved rapidly and spread globally [ 11 , 12 ]. By the end of June 2021, COVID-19 had caused approximately 180 million infected cases and 3.9 million deaths worldwide [ 13 ]. As the 6 th PHEIC and the largest pandemic to date, COVID-19 has already caused trillions of dollars of economic losses and completely changed the what is considered normal globally. Despite the availability of vaccines for emergency usage, the COVID-19 pandemic is still far from under control, calling for the development of efficient anti-viral drugs, immunological studies of immune memory in infected/vaccinated human subjects, and epidemiological studies of potential reservoir animals.

Zoonoses , an open access journal, has been established to be part of the broader goal of sharing scientific findings and viewpoints, promoting national/international collaborations, and to increase public awareness of the health risks of zoonoses. This journal focuses on emerging and re-emerging zoonoses that are major and global challenges for human and animal health [ 14 ]. We welcome scientists and health professionals in basic, clinical, and field research to submit and contribute to Zoonoses .

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Xiaoping Dong and Lynn Soong conceived and designed this editorial. Xiaoping Dong wrote the first version of the manuscript. Lynn Soong revised and finalized the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

Xiaoping Dong and Lynn Soong are co-Editors-in-Chief of Zoonoses . They were not involved in the peer-review or handling of the manuscript.

Mableson HE, Okello A, Picozzi K, Welburn SC. Neglected zoonotic diseases-the long and winding road to advocacy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis . 2014. Vol. 8(6):e2800

Failloux AB, Moutailler S. Zoonotic aspects of vector-borne infections. Rev Sci Tech . 2015. Vol. 34(1):175–83.

Hotez PJ. Blue marble health and “the big three diseases”: HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria. Microbes Infect . 2015. Vol. 17(8):539–41

Bradley R. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy. Update. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars) . 2002. Vol. 62(3):183–95

Uttley L, Carroll C, Wong R, Hilton DA, Stevenson M. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: a systematic review of global incidence, prevalence, infectivity, and incubation. Lancet Infect Dis . 2020. Vol. 20(1):e2–10

Will RG. Epidemiology of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Br Med Bull . 1993. Vol. 49(4):960–70

de Wit E, van Doremalen N, Falzarano D, Munster VJ. SARS and MERS: recent insights into emerging coronaviruses. Nat Rev Microbiol . 2016. Vol. 14(8):523–34

Hilgenfeld R, Peiris M. From SARS to MERS: 10 years of research on highly pathogenic human coronaviruses. Antiviral Res . 2013. Vol. 100(1):286–95

Bloom DE, Black S, Rappuoli R. Emerging infectious diseases: a proactive approach. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 2017. Vol. 114(16):4055–9

Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, Wang X, Zhou L, Tong Y, et al.. Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med . 2020. Vol. 382(13):1199–207

Bedford J, Enria D, Giesecke J, Heymann DL, Ihekweazu C, Kobinger G, et al.. COVID-19: towards controlling of a pandemic. Lancet . 2020. Vol. 395(10229):1015–8

Giovanetti M, Benedetti F, Campisi G, Ciccozzi A, Fabris S, Ceccarelli G, et al.. Evolution patterns of SARS-CoV-2: snapshot on its genome variants. Biochem Biophys Res Commun . 2021. Vol. 538:88–91

https://covid19.who.int/

https://zoonoses-journal.org/

Author and article information

Affiliations, author notes.

This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) 4.0 , which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Comment on this article

Fact sheets

• Facts in pictures
• Publications
• Questions and answers
• Tools and toolkits
• Endometriosis
• Excessive heat
• Mental disorders
• Polycystic ovary syndrome
• All countries
• Eastern Mediterranean
• South-East Asia
• Western Pacific
• Data by country
• Country presence 
• Country strengthening 
• Country cooperation strategies 
• News releases
• Feature stories
• Press conferences
• Commentaries
• Photo library
• Afghanistan
• Cholera 
• Coronavirus disease (COVID-19)
• Greater Horn of Africa
• Israel and occupied Palestinian territory
• Disease Outbreak News
• Situation reports
• Weekly Epidemiological Record
• Surveillance
• Health emergency appeal
• International Health Regulations
• Independent Oversight and Advisory Committee
• Classifications
• Data collections
• Global Health Observatory
• Global Health Estimates
• Mortality Database
• Sustainable Development Goals
• Health Inequality Monitor
• Global Progress
• World Health Statistics
• Partnerships
• Committees and advisory groups
• Collaborating centres
• Technical teams
• Organizational structure
• Initiatives
• General Programme of Work
• WHO Academy
• Investment in WHO
• WHO Foundation
• External audit
• Financial statements
• Internal audit and investigations 
• Programme Budget
• Results reports
• Governing bodies
• World Health Assembly
• Executive Board
• Member States Portal
• Fact sheets /
• A zoonosis is any disease or infection that is naturally transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans
• There are over 200 known types of zoonoses
• Zoonoses comprise a large percentage of new and existing diseases in humans
• Some zoonoses, such as rabies, are 100% preventable through vaccination and other methods

A zoonosis is an infectious disease that has jumped from a non-human animal to humans. Zoonotic pathogens may be bacterial, viral or parasitic, or may involve unconventional agents and can spread to humans through direct contact or through food, water or the environment. They represent a major public health problem around the world due to our close relationship with animals in agriculture, as companions and in the natural environment. Zoonoses can also cause disruptions in the production and trade of animal products for food and other uses.

Zoonoses comprise a large percentage of all newly identified infectious diseases as well as many existing ones. Some diseases, such as HIV, begin as a zoonosis but later mutate into human-only strains. Other zoonoses can cause recurring disease outbreaks, such as Ebola virus disease and salmonellosis. Still others, such as the novel coronavirus that causes COVID-19, have the potential to cause global pandemics. 

Prevention and control

Prevention methods for zoonotic diseases differ for each pathogen; however, several practices are recognized as effective in reducing risk at the community and personal levels. Safe and appropriate guidelines for animal care in the agricultural sector help to reduce the potential for foodborne zoonotic disease outbreaks through foods such as meat, eggs, dairy or even some vegetables. Standards for clean drinking water and waste removal, as well as protections for surface water in the natural environment, are also important and effective. Education campaigns to promote handwashing after contact with animals and other behavioural adjustments can reduce community spread of zoonotic diseases when they occur.

Antimicrobial resistance is a complicating factor in the control and prevention of zoonoses. The use of antibiotics in animals raised for food is widespread and increases the potential for drug-resistant strains of zoonotic pathogens capable of spreading quickly in animal and human populations.

Who is at risk?

Who response.

WHO works with national governments, academia, non-governmental and philanthropic organizations, and regional and international partners to prevent and manage zoonotic threats and their public health, social and economic impacts. These efforts include fostering cross-sectoral collaboration at the human-animal-environment interface among the different relevant sectors at regional, national and international levels. WHO also works to develop capacity and promote practical, evidence-based and cost-effective tools and mechanisms for zoonoses prevention, surveillance and detection through reporting, epidemiological and laboratory investigation, risk assessment and control, and assisting countries in their implementation.

• Research priorities for zoonoses and marginalized infections WHO Technical Report Series 971. Technical report of the TDR Disease Reference Group on Zoonoses and Marginalized Infectious Diseases of Poverty
• Q&A: Sale of live wild mammals in traditional food markets
• Global Early Warning System for health threats and emerging risks at the human–animal–ecosystems interface (GLEWS)

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

The PMC website is updating on October 15, 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Animals (Basel)

Zoonoses and Wildlife: One Health Approach

Throughout history, wildlife has been an important source of infectious diseases transmissible to humans. Today, zoonoses with a wildlife reservoir constitute a major public health problem, affecting all continents. The importance of such zoonoses is increasingly recognized, and the need for more attention in this area is being addressed. The total number of zoonoses is unknown; some 1415 known human pathogens have been catalogued, and 62% are of zoonotic origin [ 1 ]. Over time, more and more human pathogens are found to be of animal origin. Moreover, most emerging infectious diseases in humans are zoonoses. Wild animals seem to be involved in the epidemiology of most zoonoses, and serve as major reservoirs for the transmission of zoonotic agents to domestic animals and humans [ 2 ]. The concept of the ‘One Health’ approach—involving collaboration between veterinary and medical scientists, policymakers, and public health officials—is necessary in order to foster joint cooperation and control of emerging zoonotic diseases [ 3 ]. Zoonotic diseases caused by a wide range of arthropods, bacteria, helminths, protozoans, and viruses can cause serious and even life-threatening clinical conditions in animals, with a number of them also affecting the human population due to their zoonotic potential.

The aim of the present Special Issue is to cover recent and novel research trends in zoonotic diseases in wildlife, including the relevant topics related to wildlife, zoonosis, public health, emerging diseases, infectious diseases, and parasitic diseases.

A total of 12 papers have been contributed by 96 authors from 14 countries to this issue, comprising 10 research articles, 1 communication, and 1 brief report ( Figure 1 ). The number of specimens studied in this issue amounts to 5132, including wild animals, wild animals kept in captivity, domestic animals, and ticks; even human samples have been analyzed. More than 50 different species—including wild and domestic ungulates (e.g., red deer, roe deer, fallow deer, chamois, mouflon, European bison, wild boar, sheep, goat, cattle), wild carnivores (e.g., wolf, Eurasian lynx, Eurasian badger, coypu, beech marten, golden jackal), micromammals (e.g., yellow-necked field mouse, long-tailed field mouse, European water vole, white-toothed shrew, garden dormouse, common vole, house mouse, western Mediterranean mouse, black rat, Eurasian red squirrel), non-human primates (the genera Cebuella, Cercocebus, Cercopithecus, Eulemur, Hylobates, Lemur, Macaca, Mandrillus, Saimiri, and Varecia ), turtles (e.g., Testudo hermanni , T. h. boettgeri , T. graeca , and T. marginata ), bats (the families Pteropodidae, Emballonuridae, Rhinolophidae, Hipposideridae, and Vespertilionidae), and ticks ( Ixodes ricinus , Dermacentor marginatus , Hyalomma marginatum )—are included. Regarding the zoonotic pathogens represented in this issue, the presence of or exposure to 17 different pathogens—including viruses [ 4 ] (West Nile virus), bacteria [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ] ( Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Coxiella burnetii, Helicobacter pylori, H. suis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex, Salmonella sp., and Leptospira interrogans sensu stricto), and parasitic protists [ 14 , 15 ] (e.g., Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis , Blastocystis sp., Enterocytozoon bieneusi , Entamoeba histolytica , Entamoeba dispar , Balantioides coli , Troglodytella spp., Leishmania spp.)—are presented.

A word cloud created from the titles of every article published in this Special Issue.

The study of zoonotic pathogens present in wildlife mainly involves serological and/or molecular analyses, among others, for their detection, which is somewhat costly due to the difficulty in obtaining the necessary samples for analysis and ensuring that they are of high quality [ 16 ]; therefore, samples are often obtained from wild animals kept in captivity or in rescue centers [ 7 , 14 ]. In addition, the study of parasites involves searching for them, or their DNA—mainly in the feces of animals. In remote areas or resource-poor settings where the cold chain cannot be maintained, preservation and conservation of biological specimens—including fecal samples—is a challenge; for this reason, Köster et al. [ 15 ] evaluated the suitability of filter cards for the long-term storage of fecal samples of animal and human origin that were positive for the diarrhea-causing protozoan parasites Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium hominis . For this purpose, three commercially available Whatman ® filter cards were comparatively evaluated: the FTA ® Classic card, the FTA ® Elute Micro card, and the 903 Protein Saver card. Giardia duodenalis ( n = 5)- and C. hominis ( n = 5)-positive human stool samples were used to impregnate the selected cards at selected storage times (1 month, 3 months, and 6 months) and temperatures (−20 °C, 4 °C, and room temperature). Data presented by Köster et al. [ 15 ] demonstrate that Whatman ® cards are a cost-effective option for the preservation and long-term storage (up to six months) of fecal samples under a wide range of temperatures (from −20 °C to room temperature), without compromising their biospecimen stability and suitability for molecular-based diagnostic methods. Indeed, Whatman ® cards enable the molecular detection and genotyping of common diarrhea-causing enteric protozoan parasites, including C. hominis and G. duodenalis .

A significant proportion of wildlife studies are carried out in conservation centers—such as zoos—but also in wildlife rescue centers. Monitoring of infections that may be transmitted to humans by animals in wildlife rescue centers is very important in order to protect the staff engaged in rehabilitation practices. Casalino et al. [ 7 ] investigated the occurrence of non-typhoidal Salmonella in tortoises housed in a regional wildlife rescue center in Apulia, Southern Italy, to assess the presence of Salmonella serovars that may pose a risk to operators involved in wildlife management. Salmonella may be a natural inhabitant of the intestinal tracts of turtles, rarely causing disease in turtles. This may represent a potential risk for humans, increasing the sanitary risk for operators in wildlife rescue centers. Casalino et al. [ 7 ] tested 69 adult turtles ( Testudo hermanni , T . h . boettgeri , T . graeca , and T . marginata ); the distribution of Salmonella spp. was significantly higher in T . hermanni than in other species. Two different Salmonella species ( S . enterica and S . bongori ) three S . enterica subspecies ( enterica , diarizonae , and salamae ), and five different serovars (Hermannswerder, Abony, Ferruch, Richmond, and Vancouver) within the group S . enterica subspecies enterica were identified. Most of the detected Salmonella types may represent a potential risk to public health. Reducing turtles’ stress in order to minimize Salmonella shedding, as well as adopting correct animal husbandry procedures and hygiene techniques, may be useful to minimize the risk of transmission of Salmonella to humans. In particular, the adoption of gloves to manage turtles is a relevant preventive measure. Nevertheless, the greater measure of prevention is information and education on the potential sanitary risks of each professional figure involved in wildlife management.

On the other hand, little information is currently available on the epidemiology and zoonotic potential of parasitic and commensal protist species in captive non-human primates (NHPs). Köster et al. [ 14 ] investigated the occurrence, molecular diversity, and potential transmission dynamics of parasitic and commensal protist species in a zoological garden in southern Spain. The prevalence and genotypes of the main enteric protist species were investigated in fecal samples from NHPs ( n = 51), zookeepers ( n = 19), and free-living rats ( n = 64) via molecular (PCR and sequencing) methods between 2018 and 2019. The presence of Leishmania spp. was also investigated in tissues from sympatric rats using PCR. Blastocystis sp. (45.1%), Entamoeba dispar (27.5%), Giardia duodenalis (21.6%), Balantioides coli (3.9%), and Enterocytozoon bieneusi (2.0%) (but not Troglodytella spp.) were detected in NHPs. Giardia duodenalis (10.5%) and Blastocystis sp. (10.5%) were identified in zookeepers, while Cryptosporidium spp. (45.3%), G. duodenalis (14.1%), and Blastocystis sp. (6.25%) (but not Leishmania spp.) were detected in rats. Blastocystis ST1, ST3, and ST8, along with G. duodenalis sub-assemblage AII, were identified in NHPs, and Blastocystis ST1 was identified in zookeepers. In rats, four Cryptosporidium ( C. muris , C. ratti , and rat genotypes IV and V), one G. duodenalis (assemblage G), and three Blastocystis (ST4) genetic variants were detected. These results indicate high exposure of NHPs to zoonotic protist species. In conclusion, strong evidence of the occurrence of zoonotic Blastocystis transmission between NHPs and their handlers was provided, despite the use of personal protective equipment and the implementation of strict health and safety protocols. Free-living sympatric rats are infected by host-specific species/genotypes of the investigated protists, and seem to play a limited role as a source of infections to NHPs or humans in this setting.

Interactions taking place between sympatric wildlife/livestock/humans may contribute to interspecies transmission of pathogens [ 17 ]—this is the case of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex [ 18 ]. Mycobacteria can cause medically and socioeconomically significant diseases, including several non-tuberculous infections and tuberculosis, and are considered a One Health challenge due to their impact on public and animal health. These microorganisms are maintained and shared between the environment, domestic and wild animals, and humans. In this Special Issue, two studies are related to the interaction between domestic and wild species and the detection of mycobacteria in wild species such as badgers. Varela-Castro et al. [ 6 ] characterized the interactions that take place between several wild mammals and cattle via camera-trapping in order to provide insights into the dynamics of mycobacterial transmission opportunities in the environment of cattle farms located in Atlantic habitats in the northern Iberian Peninsula. Camera traps were set during a one-year period in cattle farms with a history of tuberculosis and/or non-tuberculous mycobacteriosis. A total of 1293 visits were recorded during 2741 days of camera observation. Only 23 visits showed direct contacts with cattle, suggesting that mycobacterial transmission at the wildlife–livestock interface occurs mainly through indirect interactions. Results showed that cattle pastures represented the most appropriate habitat for interspecies transmission of mycobacteria, and badgers’ latrines appear to be a potential hotspot for mycobacterial circulation between badgers, wild boars, foxes, and cattle. According to both previous epidemiological information and the interaction patterns observed, wild boars, badgers, foxes, and small rodents are the species or groups most often in contact with livestock and, thus, may be the most involved in the epidemiology of mycobacteriosis in the wildlife–livestock interface in this area. As Valera-Castaro et al. [ 6 ] pointed out in their work, the badger and its latrines are a hotspot for interspecies transmission—both domestic and wild; more specifically, Blanco Vázquez et al. [ 9 ] investigated the prevalence, spatial distribution, and temporal distribution of tuberculosis in 673 free-ranging Eurasian badgers ( Meles meles ) in Asturias (Atlantic Spain) between 2008 and 2020. The study’s objective was to assess the role of badgers as a tuberculosis reservoir for cattle and other sympatric wild species in the region. Serum samples were tested in an in-house indirect P22 ELISA to detect antibodies against the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC). In parallel, data on MTC isolation and single intradermal tuberculin test results were extracted for cattle that were tested and culled as part of the Spanish National Program for the Eradication of Bovine Tuberculosis. A total of 27/639 badgers (4.23%) were positive for MTC based on bacterial isolation, while 160/673 badgers (23.77%) were found to be positive with the P22 ELISA. The rate of seropositivity was higher among adult badgers than sub-adults. The authors found that the tuberculosis status of badgers in Asturias during 2008–2020 was associated with the tuberculosis status of local cattle herds, and results could not determine the direction of possible interspecies transmission, but they were consistent with the idea that the two hosts may exert infection pressure on one another. Both studies highlight the importance of monitoring this multi-host infection and disease in wildlife during epidemiological interventions in order to optimize outcomes under the One Health concept.

Deadly emerging and re-emerging zoonotic pathogens are transmitted mostly from wildlife reservoirs to humans or other animals during spillover events, with or without a vector intervention. In this special issue, two papers are included in which vector-borne zoonotic pathogens were studied. Ain-Najwa et al. [ 4 ] highlight the first evidence of West Nile virus (WNV) infection—a mosquito-borne virus—in Malaysian macaques and bats. Of the 81 macaques from mangrove forests sampled, 24 of the long-tailed macaques were seropositive for WNV, indicating that they were exposed to the virus; meanwhile, 5 out of 41 bats that were found in the caves from northern Peninsular Malaysia showed susceptibility to WNV. The authors found a high WNV antibody prevalence in macaques and a moderate WNV RNA in various Malaysian bat species, suggesting that WNV circulates through Malaysian wild animals, and that Malaysian bat species may be susceptible to the WNV infection. On the other hand, Grassi et al. [ 12 ] researched the genetic variants of Anaplasma phagocytophilum (a tick-borne pathogen causing zoonotic disease) in wild ungulates (the leading reservoir species) and feeding ticks (the main vector of infection) from northeastern Italy. Using biomolecular tools and phylogenetic analysis, ecotypes I and II were detected in both ticks ( Ixodes ricinus species) and wild ungulates. Specifically, ecotype II was mainly detected in roe deer and related ticks, while ecotype I—the potentially zoonotic variant—was detected in Ixodes ricinus ticks, and also in wild ungulates. These findings reveal not only the wide diffusion of Anaplasma phagocytophilum , but also the presence of zoonotic variants.

Žele-Vengušt et al. [ 5 ] analyzed the exposure of free-ranging wild animals to zoonotic Leptospira interrogans sensu stricto in Slovenia; for this, blood samples from 249 wild animals between 2019 and 2020 were tested using the microscopic agglutination test for specific antibodies against the Leptospira serovars Icterohaemorrhagiae, Bratislava, Pomona, Grippotyphosa, Hardjo, Sejroe, Australis, Autumnalis, Canicola, Saxkoebing, and Tarassovi. Antibodies to at least one of the pathogenic serovars were detected in 77 (30.9%; CI = 25–37%) sera. The proportion of positive samples varied intraspecifically, and was the greatest in large carnivores (86%), followed by mesopredators (50%) and large herbivores (17%). Out of the 77 positive samples, 42 samples (53.8%) had positive titers against a single serovar, while 35 (45.4%) samples had positive titers against two or more serovars. The most frequently detected antibodies were those against the serovar Icterohaemorrhagiae. This study confirmed the presence of multiple pathogenic serovars in wildlife throughout Slovenia. It can be concluded that wild animals are reservoirs for at least some of the leptospiral serovars, and are a potential source of leptospirosis for other wild and domestic animals, as well as for humans.

In their study, Cortez Nunes et al. [ 13 ] investigated the presence of Helicobacter pylori and H. suis DNA in free-range wild boars. Helicobacter pylori and H. suis are associated with gastric pathologies in humans. Interactions between domestic animals, wildlife, and humans can increase the risk of bacterial transmission between species. Samples of the gastric tissue of 14 free range wild boars ( Sus scrofa ) were evaluated for the presence of H. pylori and H. suis using PCR. Two samples were PCR-positive for H. pylori , and another for H. suis . These findings indicate that these microorganisms were able to colonize the stomachs of wild boars, and raise awareness of their putative intervention in the transmission cycle of Helicobacter spp..

Finally, this Special Issue includes three articles dealing with the potential role of livestock and wildlife as potential sources of human Q fever. Q fever is a worldwide-distributed zoonosis caused by Coxiella burnetii —a small intracellular bacterium belonging to γ-Proteobacteria that infects a wide range of animal species, including mammals, birds, and arthropods. People are infected through inhalation of aerosols contaminated with the bacteria expelled by infected animals during abortion or normal deliveries. Domestic ruminants, sheep, and goats are considered the main reservoirs of the infection and the principal source of human outbreaks. Coxiella burnetii has a complex ecology that replicates in multiple host species; however, the role of wildlife in its transmission is poorly understood. Krzysiak et al. [ 11 ] examined 523 serum samples obtained from European bison for the presence of specific antibodies in order to assess whether infection occurs in this species, and whether European bison may be an important source of infection in the natural environment, as suggested by historical reports. Only one (0.19%) serum sample was positive in ELISA, and two other samples were doubtful; the only seropositive animal was a free-living bull. This suggests possible transmission from domestic cattle by sharing pastures. The transmission of C . burnetii into the European bison was rather accidental in the country, and its role as an important wild reservoir is unlikely. In their study, González-Barrio et al. [ 10 ] examined spleen samples from 816 micromammals of 10 species, and 130 vaginal swabs from Microtus arvalis by qPCR, to detect C. burnetii infection and shedding, respectively; 9.7% of the spleen samples were qPCR-positive. The highest infection prevalence (10.8%) was found in Microtus arvalis , in which C. burnetii DNA was also detected in 1 of the 130 vaginal swabs (0.8%) analyzed. Positive samples were also found in Apodemus sylvaticus (8.7%), Crocidura russula (7.7%), and Rattus rattus (6.4%). Positive samples were genotyped by coupling PCR with reverse line blotting, and a genotype II+ strain was identified for the first time in one of the positive samples from M. arvalis , whereas only partial results could be obtained for the rest of the samples. Acute Q fever was diagnosed in one of the researchers who participated in the study, and it was presumably linked to M. arvalis handling. The results of the study are consistent with previous findings suggesting that micromammals can be infected by C. burnetii . The authors additionally suggest that micromammals may be potential sources to trace back the origin of human Q fever and animal coxiellosis cases in Europe, and might be relevant in the maintenance of wild-type C. burnetii strains that can be a matter of concern for animal and human health authorities. Espí et al. [ 8 ] investigated the seroprevalence of C. burnetii in domestic ruminants and wild ungulates, as well as the current situation of Q fever in humans, in a small region in northwestern Spain, where close contact at the wildlife–livestock–human interface exists, and information on C. burnetii infection is scarce. Seroprevalence of C. burnetii was 8.4% in sheep, 18.4% in cattle, and 24.4% in goats. Real-time PCR analysis of environmental samples collected in 25 livestock farms detected Coxiella DNA in dust and/or aerosols collected in 20 of them. Analysis of sera from 327 wild ungulates revealed lower seroprevalence than that found in domestic ruminants. Exposure to the pathogen in humans was determined by IFAT analysis of 1312 blood samples collected from patients admitted to healthcare centers with Q-fever-compatible symptoms, such as fever and/or pneumonia. Results showed that 15.9% of the patients had IFAT titers ≥ 1/128, suggestive of probable acute infection. This study is an example of a One Health approach with medical and veterinary institutions involved in investigating zoonotic diseases.

Overall, the papers in this Special Issue reveal different perspectives of current research on zoonotic disease and wildlife, from applied field studies to investigations into the intricate mechanisms involved in the interaction between pathogens, wildlife, livestock, and humans.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank all of the authors who contributed their papers to this Special Issue, and the reviewers for their helpful recommendations. I am also grateful to all members of the Animals Editorial Office for giving me this opportunity, and for their continuous support in managing and organizing this Special Issue. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the academic editors Julie Arsenault, Fulvio Marsilio, Scott C. Williams, Nicole Gottdenker, Stefania Perrucci, and Laila Darwich Soliva, who made decisions for certain papers.

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

An official website of the United States government

Here's how you know

Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( ) or https:// means you’ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

•   Facebook
•   Twitter
•   Linkedin
•   Digg
•   Reddit
•   Pinterest
•   Email

Latest Earthquakes |    Chat Share Social Media  

The Future of Climate Research at the USGS – Our Climate Science Plan is Released

The new USGS Climate Science Plan provides guidelines for conducting the bureau’s climate science, sets priorities, goals, and strategies, and identifies outcomes as well as opportunity gaps 

On September 6, the USGS released the  U.S. Geological Survey Climate Science Plan—Future Research Directions , the culmination of a two-year effort by the Climate Science Plan Writing Team. The team was charged with identifying the major climate science topics of future concern and developing an integrated approach to conducting climate science in support of the USGS, Department of the Interior (DOI), and administration priorities. The overarching purpose of the plan was to define the scope and delivery of critical climate science, identify future research directions, and outline opportunities to increase our climate science capacity and expand our research portfolio.  

Climate is one of the primary drivers of environmental change and a priority in defining science conducted across all USGS mission areas. USGS climate science provides the nation with forward-looking, evidence-based information and approaches to assist in planning for and adapting to a changing world. For the first time, the USGS Climate Science Plan provides guidelines for conducting the bureau’s climate science, emphasizing the transdisciplinary nature of the work. The plan embraces co-produced science and Indigenous Knowledge, understanding that climate change disproportionately affects less resilient communities. And no science plan would be complete without focusing on clear, consistent, and equitable communication of our scientific activities. The guidelines acknowledge the USGS’s unique climate science niche within DOI and the federal government, the role our science plays in potentially informing policy, as well as the relevance of our research for the nation, our stakeholders, and our international partners.  

The plan highlights three future climate science research directions: 1) characterizing climate change and associated impacts, 2) assessing climate change risks and developing approaches to mitigate climate change, and 3) providing climate science tools and support.  

Characterizing climate change and its impacts includes goals related to long-term, broad-scale monitoring, providing leadership on greenhouse gas emissions on DOI lands, collaborating with federal programs and other agencies to study climate impacts on ecosystems, and improving data synthesis both within the USGS and between the USGS and agency partners. Key goals related to assessing and reducing climate change risk include linking climate change impacts to risk assessments; reducing uncertainties in models and designing early warning systems; and creating decision support tools to inform and expand mitigation and adaptation measures, particularly through collaboration with land management agencies, use of nature-based solutions, or integration with federal greenhouse gas monitoring efforts. To provide climate adaptation services, the USGS’s goals are to facilitate co-production of knowledge, enhance data capabilities, build capacity through development of training curricula, and coordinate with other agencies.  

Twelve specific goals are identified to achieve these future research directions and are supported by specific strategies and expected impacts and outcomes of research investments.  

• Conduct long-term, broad-scale, and multidisciplinary measurements and monitoring and research activities to define, quantify, and predict the impacts of climate change on natural and human systems .  
• Provide leadership to standardize measuring, monitoring, reporting, and verifying greenhouse gas emissions, lateral carbon fluxes, and carbon sinks across lands managed by the DOI. 
• Provide science capacity, training, tools, and infrastructure to Tribal partners; support Tribal-led science initiatives. 
• Conduct climate change research in partnership with the broader climate science community. 
• Develop improved data synthesis methods through collaborative and open science across mission areas and between the USGS and bureau partners.  
• Translate climate change impacts into risk assessments in support of risk management strategies. 
• Develop new and improved risk assessments, models, and approaches for mitigating climate change, adapting to its impacts, and reducing uncertainties; design early warning systems for risk mitigation. 
• Investigate climate change mitigation strategies and create decision-science support tools to inform climate change mitigation and adaptation. 
• Provide a framework that facilitates knowledge co-production needed to inform policy decisions. 
• Provide access to USGS data and information through novel integration and visualization approaches. 
• Build capacity within the USGS and DOI through development of scientific training curricula. 
• Coordinate science and capacity building efforts broadly across the federal government. 

To ensure successful implementation of the USGS Climate Science Plan, the authors outline numerous opportunities, including strategic planning for workforce development, the recruitment of the next generation of climate scientists, social scientists, and support staff, and investments in long-term scientific innovation across USGS mission areas. The plan also details the existing USGS climate science capabilities to demonstrate the breadth of our work, while also identifying capacity gaps.  

By defining the USGS’s long-term climate science priorities, we can ensure that critical science themes and activities will continue and expand along with newly available data, innovative technologies, and evolving scientific and public information needs. This will position the USGS to continue to serve as one of the nation’s leading climate science agencies.  

Special thanks to the members of the writing team for their contributions : 

Tamara Wilson – Western Geographic Science Center  

Ryan Boyles – Southeast Climate Adaptation Science Center 

Nicole DeCrappeo – Northwest Climate Adaptation Science Center  

Judith Drexler – California Water Science Center  

Kevin Kroeger – Wood Hole Coastal and Marine Science Center 

Rachel Loehman – Alaska Science Center 

John Pearce – Alaska Science Center 

Mark Waldrop – Geology, Minerals, Energy, and Geophysics Science Center 

Peter Warwick – Geology, Energy, and Minerals Science Center 

Anne Wein – Western Geographic Science Center 

Sarah Zeigler – St. Petersburg Coastal and Marine Science Center 

Doug Beard – National Climate Adaptation Science Center 

Tamara Wilson   Acting   Assistant Regional Administrator, Southwest Climate Adaptation Science Center 

Research Geographer, Western Geographic Science Center 

Doug Beard   Director, National Climate Adaptation Science Center 

Get Our News

These items are in the RSS feed format (Really Simple Syndication) based on categories such as topics, locations, and more. You can install and RSS reader browser extension, software, or use a third-party service to receive immediate news updates depending on the feed that you have added. If you click the feed links below, they may look strange because they are simply XML code. An RSS reader can easily read this code and push out a notification to you when something new is posted to our site.

Climate Adaptation Science Centers News

Climate News

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

Research: Competent Leaders Know The Limits of Their Expertise

• David Dunning

How to spot the difference between confidence and competence.

It is very important as a manager to accurately gauge one’s competence; overconfidence can lead to significant business failures. Self-perceived expertise can cause individuals to overclaim knowledge, often mistaking confidence for actual competence. Genuine expertise, however, is marked by an accurate understanding of one’s limitations. The article advises leaders to rely on proven track records and data when evaluating their own abilities and those of others, underscoring Warren Buffet’s philosophy: success hinges on knowing the boundaries of your circle of competence.

Accurately gauging what you know — and more importantly, what you don’t — can mean the difference between success and failure as a manager.

• SA Stav Atir is an assistant professor of management at the University of Wisconsin-Madison’s Wisconsin School of Business. Her research focuses on the psychological processes that underlie knowledge judgments and learning decisions. She also studies topics related to diversity, equity, and inclusion.
• DD David Dunning is Mary Ann and Charles R. Walgreen, Jr., Professor of the Study of Human Understanding, as well as Professor of Psychology at the University of Michigan. A social psychologist, his work focuses on misbeliefs about the self and misunderstandings between people.

Partner Center

• Frontiers in Parasitology
• Molecular Cellular Parasitology
• Research Topics

Current Advances in Giardiasis in Animals and Humans: a One Health view

Total Downloads

Total Views and Downloads

About this Research Topic

Giardiasis is a parasitic infection caused by the protozoa Giardia and remains a significant public health concern globally. Recent advances in understanding Giardia infections in both humans and animals have provided valuable insights into genetic diversity, transmission dynamics, pathogenicity, the relationship with the gut microbiota and drug resistance mechanisms. Studies have highlighted the zoonotic potential of Giardia, emphasizing the relationship between human and animal health. Diagnostic tools have enhanced detection accuracy, contributing to a better understanding of the epidemiology of the disease. Research efforts continue to explore effective treatment strategies against drug-resistant strains and the environmental persistence of Giardia cysts. These advancements underscore the importance of collaborative One Health approaches to mitigate the impact of Giardia infections on human and animal populations worldwide particularly in endemic areas. The proposed topic aims to collect and collate current and relevant studies about the biology, epidemiology, diagnostic, therapeutic, and prevention measures of Giardia, focusing on one health approach. Thus, this topic seeks to highlight the importance of collaborative approaches in mitigating the impact of giardiasis on global health. Potential sub-topics include, but are not limited to: • General biology of Giardia • Transmission (food, waterborne -drinking and recreational water, human to human, animal to animal) • Host-pathogen interactions • Clinical disease and pathology • Epidemiology • Diagnosis and treatment • Parasitic co-infections and microbial interactions • Prevention measures In this article collection, we welcome the following article types: Original research, reviews, mini-reviews, systematic reviews.

Keywords : Giardiasis, Giardia, Zoonosis, Epidemiology, One Health

Important Note : All contributions to this Research Topic must be within the scope of the section and journal to which they are submitted, as defined in their mission statements. Frontiers reserves the right to guide an out-of-scope manuscript to a more suitable section or journal at any stage of peer review.

Topic Editors

Topic coordinators, submission deadlines.

Participating Journals

Manuscripts can be submitted to this Research Topic via the following journals:

total views

• Demographics

No records found

total views article views downloads topic views

Top countries

Top referring sites, about frontiers research topics.

With their unique mixes of varied contributions from Original Research to Review Articles, Research Topics unify the most influential researchers, the latest key findings and historical advances in a hot research area! Find out more on how to host your own Frontiers Research Topic or contribute to one as an author.