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Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is an in-depth examination of a single case or a few selected cases within a real-world context. Case study research is widely used across disciplines such as psychology, sociology, business, and education to explore complex phenomena in detail. Unlike other research methods that aim for broad generalizations, case studies offer an intensive understanding of a specific individual, group, event, or situation.

A case study is a research method that involves a detailed examination of a subject (the “case”) within its real-life context. Case studies are used to explore the causes of underlying principles, behaviors, or outcomes, providing insights into the nuances of the studied phenomena. This approach allows researchers to capture a wide array of factors and interactions that may not be visible in other methods, such as experiments or surveys.

Key Characteristics of Case Studies :

• Focus on a specific case, individual, or event.
• Provide in-depth analysis and contextual understanding.
• Useful for exploring new or complex phenomena.
• Generate rich qualitative data that contributes to theory building.

Types of Case Studies

Case studies can be classified into different types depending on their purpose and methodology. Common types include exploratory , descriptive , explanatory , intrinsic , and instrumental case studies.

1. Exploratory Case Study

Definition : An exploratory case study investigates an area where little is known. It helps to identify questions, variables, and hypotheses for future research.

Characteristics :

• Often used in the early stages of research.
• Focuses on discovery and hypothesis generation.
• Helps clarify research questions.

Example : Examining how remote work affects team dynamics in an organization that has recently transitioned to a work-from-home model.

2. Descriptive Case Study

Definition : A descriptive case study provides a detailed account of a particular case, describing it within its context. The goal is to provide a complete and accurate depiction without necessarily exploring underlying causes.

• Focuses on describing the case in detail.
• Provides comprehensive data to paint a clear picture of the phenomenon.
• Helps understand “what” happened without delving into “why.”

Example : Documenting the process and outcomes of a corporate restructuring within a company, describing the actions taken and their immediate effects.

3. Explanatory Case Study

Definition : An explanatory case study aims to explain the cause-and-effect relationships of a particular case. It focuses on understanding “how” or “why” something happened.

• Useful for causal analysis.
• Aims to provide insights into mechanisms and processes.
• Often used in social sciences and psychology to study behavior and interactions.

Example : Investigating why a school’s test scores improved significantly after implementing a new teaching method.

4. Intrinsic Case Study

Definition : An intrinsic case study focuses on a unique or interesting case, not because of what it represents but because of its intrinsic value. The researcher’s interest lies in understanding the case itself.

• Driven by the researcher’s interest in the particular case.
• Not meant to generalize findings to broader contexts.
• Focuses on gaining a deep understanding of the specific case.

Example : Studying a particularly successful start-up to understand its founder’s unique leadership style.

5. Instrumental Case Study

Definition : An instrumental case study examines a particular case to gain insights into a broader issue. The case serves as a tool for understanding something more general.

• The case itself is not the focus; rather, it is a vehicle for exploring broader principles or theories.
• Helps apply findings to similar situations or cases.
• Useful for theory testing or development.

Example : Studying a well-known patient’s therapy process to understand the general principles of effective psychological treatment.

Methods of Conducting a Case Study

Case studies can involve various research methods to collect data and analyze the case comprehensively. The primary methods include interviews , observations , document analysis , and surveys .

1. Interviews

Definition : Interviews allow researchers to gather in-depth information from individuals involved in the case. These interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, depending on the study’s goals.

• Develop a list of open-ended questions aligned with the study’s objectives.
• Conduct interviews with individuals directly or indirectly involved in the case.
• Record, transcribe, and analyze the responses to identify key themes.

Example : Interviewing employees, managers, and clients in a company to understand the effects of a new business strategy.

2. Observations

Definition : Observations involve watching and recording behaviors, actions, and events within the case’s natural setting. This method provides first-hand data on interactions, routines, and environmental factors.

• Define the behaviors and interactions to observe.
• Conduct observations systematically, noting relevant details.
• Analyze patterns and connections in the observed data.

Example : Observing interactions between teachers and students in a classroom to evaluate the effectiveness of a teaching method.

3. Document Analysis

Definition : Document analysis involves reviewing existing documents related to the case, such as reports, emails, memos, policies, or archival records. This provides historical and contextual data that can complement other data sources.

• Identify relevant documents that offer insights into the case.
• Systematically review and code the documents for themes or categories.
• Compare document findings with data from interviews and observations.

Example : Analyzing company policies, performance reports, and emails to study the process of implementing a new organizational structure.

Definition : Surveys are structured questionnaires administered to a group of people involved in the case. Surveys are especially useful for gathering quantitative data that supports or complements qualitative findings.

• Design survey questions that align with the research goals.
• Distribute the survey to a sample of participants.
• Analyze the survey responses, often using statistical methods.

Example : Conducting a survey among customers to measure satisfaction levels after a service redesign.

Case Study Guide: Step-by-Step Process

Step 1: define the research questions.

• Clearly outline what you aim to understand or explain.
• Define specific questions that the case study will answer, such as “What factors led to X outcome?”

Step 2: Select the Case(s)

• Choose a case (or cases) that are relevant to your research question.
• Ensure that the case is feasible to study, accessible, and likely to yield meaningful data.

Step 3: Determine the Data Collection Methods

• Decide which methods (e.g., interviews, observations, document analysis) will best capture the information needed.
• Consider combining multiple methods to gather rich, well-rounded data.

Step 4: Collect Data

• Gather data using your chosen methods, following ethical guidelines such as informed consent and confidentiality.
• Take comprehensive notes and record interviews or observations when possible.

Step 5: Analyze the Data

• Organize the data into themes, patterns, or categories.
• Use qualitative or quantitative analysis methods, depending on the nature of the data.
• Compare findings across data sources to identify consistencies and discrepancies.

Step 6: Interpret Findings

• Draw conclusions based on the analysis, relating the findings to your research questions.
• Consider alternative explanations and assess the generalizability of your findings.

Step 7: Report Results

• Write a detailed report that presents your findings and explains their implications.
• Discuss the limitations of the case study and potential directions for future research.

Examples of Case Study Applications

• Objective : To understand the success factors of a high-growth tech company.
• Methods : Interviews with key executives, analysis of internal reports, and customer satisfaction surveys.
• Outcome : Insights into unique management practices and customer engagement strategies.
• Objective : To examine the impact of project-based learning on student engagement.
• Methods : Observations in classrooms, interviews with teachers, and analysis of student performance data.
• Outcome : Evidence of increased engagement and enhanced critical thinking skills among students.
• Objective : To explore the effectiveness of a new mental health intervention.
• Methods : Interviews with patients, assessment of clinical outcomes, and reviews of therapist notes.
• Outcome : Identification of factors that contribute to successful treatment outcomes.
• Objective : To assess the impact of urban development on local wildlife.
• Methods : Observations of wildlife, analysis of environmental data, and interviews with residents.
• Outcome : Findings showing the effects of urban sprawl on species distribution and biodiversity.

Case studies are valuable for in-depth exploration and understanding of complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. By using methods such as interviews, observations, document analysis, and surveys, researchers can obtain comprehensive data and generate insights that are specific to the case. Whether exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory, case studies offer unique opportunities for understanding and discovering practical applications for theories.

• Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design and Implementation for Novice Researchers . The Qualitative Report, 13(4), 544–559.
• Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2017). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.
• Stake, R. E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research . SAGE Publications.
• Yin, R. K. (2018). Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods (6th ed.). SAGE Publications.
• Thomas, G. (2016). How to Do Your Case Study (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Interviews can be defined as a qualitative research technique which involves “conducting intensive individual interviews with a small number of respondents to explore their perspectives on a particular idea, program or situation.” [1]

There are three different formats of interviews: structured, semi-structured and unstructured.

Structured interviews consist of a series of pre-determined questions that all interviewees answer in the same order. Data analysis usually tends to be more straightforward because researcher can compare and contrast different answers given to the same questions.

Unstructured interviews are usually the least reliable from research viewpoint, because no questions are prepared prior to the interview and data collection is conducted in an informal manner. Unstructured interviews can be associated with a high level of bias and comparison of answers given by different respondents tends to be difficult due to the differences in formulation of questions.

Semi-structured interviews contain the components of both, structured and unstructured interviews. In semi-structured interviews, interviewer prepares a set of same questions to be answered by all interviewees. At the same time, additional questions might be asked during interviews to clarify and/or further expand certain issues.

Advantages of interviews include possibilities of collecting detailed information about research questions.  Moreover, in in this type of primary data collection researcher has direct control over the flow of process and she has a chance to clarify certain issues during the process if needed. Disadvantages, on the other hand, include longer time requirements and difficulties associated with arranging an appropriate time with perspective sample group members to conduct interviews.

When conducting interviews you should have an open mind and refrain from displaying disagreements in any forms when viewpoints expressed by interviewees contradict your own ideas. Moreover, timing and environment for interviews need to be scheduled effectively. Specifically, interviews need to be conducted in a relaxed environment, free of any forms of pressure for interviewees whatsoever.

Respected scholars warn that “in conducting an interview the interviewer should attempt to create a friendly, non-threatening atmosphere. Much as one does with a cover letter, the interviewer should give a brief, casual introduction to the study; stress the importance of the person’s participation; and assure anonymity, or at least confidentiality, when possible.” [2]

There is a risk of interviewee bias during the primary data collection process and this would seriously compromise the validity of the project findings. Some interviewer bias can be avoided by ensuring that the interviewer does not overreact to responses of the interviewee. Other steps that can be taken to help avoid or reduce interviewer bias include having the interviewer dress inconspicuously and appropriately for the environment and holding the interview in a private setting.  [3]

My e-book, The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step assistance offers practical assistance to complete a dissertation with minimum or no stress. The e-book covers all stages of writing a dissertation starting from the selection to the research area to submitting the completed version of the work within the deadline.John Dudovskiy

[1] Boyce, C. & Neale, P. (2006) “Conducting in-depth Interviews: A Guide for Designing and Conducting In-Depth Interviews”, Pathfinder International Tool Series

[2] Connaway, L.S.& Powell, R.P.(2010) “Basic Research Methods for Librarians” ABC-CLIO

[3] Connaway, L.S.& Powell, R.P.(2010) “Basic Research Methods for Librarians” ABC-CLIO

• Research Methods
• Post last modified: 26 August 2021
• Reading time: 36 mins read
• Post category: Research Methodology

4 Research Methods

4 Major Research Methods are:

Observations

Schedule and questionnaire, case study method.

Table of Content

• 1.1.1 Types of Interview
• 1.1.2 Features of Interviews
• 1.1.3 Essentials for an Effective Interview
• 1.1.4 Advantages of Interviews
• 1.1.5 Disadvantages of Interviews
• 1.1.6 Interview Process
• 1.1.7 Problems Faced in an Interview
• 1.2.1 Characteristics of Observation Method
• 1.2.2 Types of Observation
• 1.2.3 Prerequisites of Observation
• 1.2.4 Advantages of observations
• 1.2.5 Disadvantages of observations
• 1.2.6 Use of observation in business research
• 1.3.1 Importance of questionnaires
• 1.3.2 Types of Questionnaire
• 1.3.3 Advantages of Questionnaires
• 1.3.4 Disadvantages of Questionnaires
• 1.3.5 Preparation of an Effective Questionnaire
• 1.3.6 Difference between schedule and questionnaire
• 1.4.1 Assumptions of case study method
• 1.4.2 Advantages of Case Study Method
• 1.4.3 Disadvantages of Case Study Method
• 1.4.4 Case study as a method of business research

Interviewing is a very effective method of data collection. It is a systematic and objective conversation between an investigator and respondent for collecting relevant data for a specific research study. Along with conversation, learning about the gestures, facial expressions and environmental conditions of a respondent are also very important.

Generally, interview collects a wide range of data from factual demographic data to highly personal and intimate information relating to a person’s opinions, attitudes, values and beliefs, past experience and future intentions.

The interview method is very important in the collection of data from the respondent who is less educated or illiterate. Personal interview is more feasible when the area covered for survey is compact. Probing is a very important part of an interview.

Types of Interview

The following are the various types of interviews:

Structured or directive interview

In this type of interview, the investigator goes to the respondent with a detailed schedule. Some questions in same sequence are asked from all respondents.

Unstructured or non-directive interview

In this type of interview, the respondent is encouraged to give his honest opinion on a given topic without or with minimum help from others.

Focused interview

This is a semi-structured interview where the respondent shares the effect of the experience to the given conditions with the researcher or investigator. It is conducted with those respondents only who have prior experience of conditions given by the investigator.

Analysis of the attitude, emotional feelings for the situations under study is main purpose behind conducting these interviews. A set of fix questions may not be required in this interview but a relevant topic is required which is known to the respondent.

Clinical interview

While a focussed interview is concerned with effects of specific experience, clinical interviews are concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or the course of the individual’s life experiences with reference to the research study. It encourages the interviewee to share his experience freely.

Depth interview

To analyse or study the respondent’s emotions, opinions, etc., depth interviews are conducted. This kind of interview aims to collect intensive data about individuals, especially their opinions.

It is a lengthy process to get unbiased data from the respondent. Interviewers should avoid advising or showing this agreement. Instead, the investigator has to motivate the respondent to answer the questions.

Features of Interviews

The following are some of the features of interviews

• The interviewer and the respondent are the participants in any interview. They both are unknown to each other and so it is important for an interviewer to introduce himself first to the respondent.
• An interview has a beginning and a termination point in the relationship between the participants.
• Interview is not a mere casual conversational exchange. It has a specific purpose of collecting data which is relevant to the study.
• Interview is a mode of obtaining a verbal response to questions to put verbally. It is not always face to face.
• Success of interview depends on the interviewer and respondent and how they perceive each other.
• It is not a standardized process.

Essentials for an Effective Interview

The following are the requirements for a successful interview:

• Data availability : The respondent should have complete knowledge of the information required for specific study.
• Role perception : The interviewer and the respondent should be aware of their roles in the interview process. The respondent should be clear about the topic or questions which have to be answered by him. Similarly, it is the responsibility of the interviewer to make the respondent comfortable by introducing himself first. The investigator should not affect the interview situation through subjective attitude and argumentation.
• Respondent’s motivation : The respondent can hesitate to answer the questions. In this case, the approach and skills of the interviewer are very important as he has to motivate the respondent to answer or express himself.

Advantages of Interviews

The following are the advantages of the interview method:

• In-depth and detailed information is collected.
• The interviewer tries to improve the responses and quality of data received.
• He can control the conditions in favour of the research study.
• Interviews help in gathering supplementary information which can be helpful to the study.
• Interviews use special scoring devices, visuals and materials to improve the quality of data or information collected.
• Interviews use observation and probing by the interviewer to see the accuracy and dependability of given data by the respondent.
• Interviews are flexible in nature.

Disadvantages of Interviews

The following are the disadvantages of interviews:

• Interviews consume more time and cost.
• The respondent’s responses can be affected by the way the interviewer asks the questions.
• The respondent may refuse to answer some personal questions which are relevant to the study.
• Recording and coding of data during the interview process may sometimes be difficult for the interviewer.
• The interviewer may not have good communication or interactive skills.

Interview Process

The following are the stages in an interview process:

Preparation

The interviewer needs to make certain preparations to make an interview successful. The interviewer should keep all the copies of the schedule or guide ready. They need to prepare the lists of respondents with their addresses, contact number and meeting time.

They should prepare themselves with all the approaches and skills required to conduct an interview. They should prepare themselves to face all adverse situations during the interview. If the interviewer is not doing such planning, they can fail to collect the right information from respondent.

Introduction

The interviewer is not known to the respondent. Therefore, the interviewer must introduce himself first to every respondent. In the introduction, the interviewer should tell about himself, his organization details and the purpose of his visit.

If the interviewer knows someone who the respondent is familiar with, then he can use that person’s reference to make the respondent more comfortable. The following are some steps which help in motivating the respondent:

• The interviewer should introduce himself with a smiling face and always greet the respondent.
• He should identify and call the respondent by name.
• He must describe how the respondent is selected.
• He should explain the purpose and usefulness of the study.
• He should focus on the value of the respondent’s cooperation.

Developing report

It is important for an interviewer to develop a rapport with the respondent before starting the interview. By doing this, a cordial relationship is established between them. It helps the interviewer understand the inherent nature of the respondent which helps in building a rapport and the discussion can be started with some general topic or with the help of a person who is commonly known to both of them.

Carrying the interview forward

After establishing a rapport, the skills of the interviewer are required to carry the interview forward. The following are some guidelines that should be followed:

• Start the interview in an informal and natural manner.
• Ask all the questions in the same sequence as in the schedule.
• Do not take an answer for granted. It is not necessary that an interviewee will know all answers or will give all answers. The interviewer has to create interest for answering questions.
• The objective of the question should be known to the interviewer to ensure that the correct information is collected for research study.
• Explain the question if it has not been understood properly by the respondent.
• Listen to the respondent carefully with patience.
• Never argue with the respondent.
• Show your concern and interest in the information given by the respondent.
• Do not express your own opinion for answers of any question in the schedule.
• Continue to motivate the respondent.
• If the respondent is unable to frame the right answer, the interviewer should help him by providing alternate questions.
• Ensure that the conversation does not go off track.
• If the respondent is unable to answer a particular question due to some reasons, drop the question at that moment. This question can be asked indirectly later on.

Recording the interview

Responses should be recorded in the same sequence as they are given by the respondent. The response should be recorded at the same time as it is generated. It may be very difficult to remember all the responses later for recording them.

Recording can be done in writing but there may be some problems if the writing skills of an interviewer are not good. Hence, the use of electronic devices like tape recorders can help in this purpose. The interviewer should also record all his probes and other comments on the schedule, but they should be in brackets to ensure that they are set off from response.

Closing the interview

After the interview is over, the interviewer must thank the respondent for his cooperation. He must collect all the papers before leaving the respondent. If the respondent wants to know the result of the survey, the interviewer must ensure that the results are mailed to him when they are ready.

At the end, the interviewer must edit the schedule to check that all the questions have been asked and recorded. Also, abbreviations in recording should be replaced by full words.

Problems Faced in an Interview

The following are some of the main problems faced in an interview:

Inadequate response

Kahn and Cannel laid down five principal symptoms of inadequate response. They are given as follows:

• Partial response in which the respondent gives a relevant but incomplete answer.
• Non-response in which the respondent remains silent or refuses to answer the questions.
• Irrelevant response in which the respondent’s answer is not relevant to the question asked.
• Inaccurate response in which the reply is biased.
• Verbalized response problem which arises because of the respondent’s failure to understand the question.

Interviewer’s biasness, refusal, incapability to understand questions

An interviewer can affect the performance of an interview with his own responses and suggestions. Such biasing factors can never be overcome fully, but their effect can be reduced by training and development techniques.

Non response

Some respondents out of the total respondents fail to respond to the schedule. The reasons for this non response can be non availability, refusal, incapability to understand questions, etc.

Non availability

Some respondents are not available at their places at the time of call. This could be because of odd timings or working hours.

Some respondents refuse to answer the questions. There can be many reasons for this, such as language, odd hours, sickness, no interest in such studies, etc.

Inaccessibility

Some respondents can be inaccessible because of various reasons such as migration, touring job, etc.

Observation can be defined as viewing or seeing. Observation means specific viewing with the purpose of gathering the data for a specific research study. Observation is a classical method of scientific study. It is very important in any research study as it is an effective method for data collection.

Characteristics of Observation Method

The following are the characteristics of the observation method of data collection:

• Physical and mental activity : Eyes observe so many things in our surroundings but our focus or attention is only on data which is relevant to research study.
• Observation is selective : It is very difficult for a researcher to observe everything in his surroundings. He only observes the data which is purposive for his research study and meets with the scope of his study. The researcher ignores all the data which is not relevant to the study.
• Observation is purposive and not casual : Observation is purposive as it is relevant to a particular study. The purpose of observation is to collect data for the research study. It focusses on human behaviour which occurs in a social phenomenon. It analyses the relationship of different variables in a specific context.
• Accuracy and standardization : Observation of pertinent data should be accurate and standardized for its applications.

Types of Observation

Different concepts define the classification of observations.

With respect to an investigator’s role, observation may be:

Participant observation

Non-participant observation

With respect to the method of observation, it can be classified into the following:

Direct observation

Indirect observation

With reference to the control on the system to be observed, observation can be classified into the following:

Controlled observation

Uncontrolled observation

In participant type of observation, the observer is an active participant of the group or process. He participates as well as observes as a part of a phenomenon;

For example, to study the behaviour of management students towards studying and understanding marketing management, the observer or researcher has to participate in the discussion with students without telling them about the observation or purpose. When respondents are unaware of observations, then only their natural interest can be studied.

In non-participant observation, the observer does not participate in the group process. He acknowledges the behaviour of the group without telling the respondents. It requires a lot of skills to record observations in an unnoticeable manner.

In direct observation, the observer and researcher personally observe all the happenings of a process or an event when the event is happening. In this method, the observer records all the relevant aspects of an event which are necessary for study.

He is free to change the locations and focus of the observation. One major limitation of the method is that the observer may not be able to cover all relevant events when they are happening.

Physical presence of an observer is not required and recording is done with the help of mechanical, photographic or electronic devices;

For example, close circuit TV (CCTV) cameras are used in many showrooms to observe the behaviour of customers. It provides a permanent record for an analysis of different aspects of the event.

All observations are done under pre-specified conditions over extrinsic and intrinsic variables by adopting experimental design and systematically recording observations. Controlled observations are carried out either in the laboratory or the field.

There is no control over extrinsic and intrinsic variables. It is mainly used for descriptive research. Participant observation is a typical uncontrolled one.

Prerequisites of Observation

The following are the prerequisites of observation:

• The conditions of observation must provide accurate results. An observer should be in a position to observe the object clearly.
• The right number of respondents should be selected as the sample size for the observation to produce the desired results.
• Accurate and complete recording of an event.
• If it is possible, two separate observers and sets of instruments can be used in all or some observations. Then the result can be compared to measure accuracy and completeness.

Advantages of observations

The following are the advantages of observations:

• It ensures the study of behaviour in accordance with the occurrence of events. The observer does not ask anything from the representatives, he just watches the doing and saying of the sample.
• The data collected by observation defines the observed phenomenon as they occur in their natural settings.
• When an object is not able to define the meaning of its behaviour, observation is best method for analysis; for example, animals, birds and children.
• Observation covers the entire happenings of an event.
• Observation is less biased as compared to questioning.
• It is easier to conduct disguised observation studies as opposed to disguised questioning.
• The use of mechanical devices can generate accurate results.

Disadvantages of observations

The following are the limitations of observation:

• Past studies and events are of no use to observation. For these events and study, one has to go through narrations, people and documents.
• It is difficult to understand attitudes with the help of observation.
• Observations cannot be performed by the choice of the observer. He has to wait for an event to occur.
• It is difficult to predict when and where the event will occur. Thus, it may not be possible for an observer to reach in every event.
• Observation requires more time and money.

Use of observation in business research

Observation is very useful in the following business research purposes:

• Buying behaviour of customer, lifestyles, customs, interpersonal relations, group dynamics, leadership styles, managerial style and actions.
• Physical characteristics of inanimate things like houses, factories, stores, etc.
• Movements in a production plant.
• Flow of traffic, crowd and parking on road.

Primary data can be collected with the help of emails and surveys. The respondents receive the questionnaires from the researcher and are asked to fill them completely and return them to the researcher. It can be performed only when the respondents are educated.

The mail questionnaire should be simple and easy to understand so that the respondents can answer all questions easily. In mail questionnaires, all the answers have to be given and recorded by the respondents and not by the researcher or investigator, as in the case of the personal interview method. There is no face-to-face interaction between the investigator and respondent and so the respondent is free to give answers of his own choice.

Importance of questionnaires

A questionnaire is a very effective method as well as research tool in any research study. It ensures the collection of a diversified and wide range of scientific data to complete the research objectives. The questionnaire provides all the inputs in the form of relevant data to all statistical methods used in a research study.

Types of Questionnaire

The following are the various categories of questionnaires:

• Structured or standard questionnaire Structured or standard questionnaires contain predefined questions in order to collect the required data for research study. These questions are the same for all the respondents. Questions are in the same language and in the same order for all the respondents.
• Unstructured questionnaire In unstructured questionnaires, the respondent has the freedom

Process of Data Collection

The researcher prepares the mailing list by collecting the addresses of all the respondents with the help of primary and secondary sources of data. A covering letter must accompany every questionnaire, indicating the purpose and importance of the research and importance of cooperation of the respondent for the success of the research study.

Advantages of Questionnaires

The following are the advantages of questionnaires:

• Wide reach and extensive coverage
• Easy to contact the person who is busy
• Respondent’s convenience in completion of questionnaire
• More impersonal, provides more anonymity
• No interviewer’s biasness

Disadvantages of Questionnaires

The following are the disadvantages of questionnaires:

• Low response by respondent
• Low scope in many societies where literary level is low
• More time requirement

Preparation of an Effective Questionnaire

While preparing a questionnaire, the researcher must focus on some key parameters to prepare it. These key parameters are as follows:

• Proper use of open and close probe
• Proper sequence of questions
• Use of simple language
• Asking no personal question in which the respondent is hesitating to answer
• Should not be time consuming
• Use of control questions indicating reliability of the respondent

Collecting Data through Schedule

This method is very similar to the collection of data through questionnaires. The only difference is that in schedule, enumerators are appointed. These enumerators go to the respondents, ask the stated questions in the same sequence as the schedule and record the reply of respondents.

Schedules may be given to the respondents and the enumerators should help them solve the problems faced while answering the question in the given schedule. Thus, enumerator selection is very important in data collection through schedules.

Difference between schedule and questionnaire

Both questionnaire and schedule are popular methods of data collection. The following are the main differences between questionnaire and schedule:

• A questionnaire is generally sent to the respondents through mail, but in case of schedule, it is sent through enumerators.
• Questionnaires are relatively cheaper mediums of data collection as compared to schedules. In the case of questionnaires, the cost is incurred in preparing it and mailing it to respondent, while in schedule, more money is required for hiring enumerators, training them and incurring their field expenses.
• The response rate in questionnaires is low as many people return it without filling. On the other hand, the response rate in schedules is high because they are filled by enumerators.
• In collecting data through questionnaires, the identity of the respondent may not be known, but this is not the case when it comes to schedules.
• Data collection through questionnaires requires a lot of time, which is comparatively very less in case of schedules.
• Generally, there is no personal contact in case of questionnaires, but in schedules, personal contact is always there.
• The literacy level of the respondent is very important while filling questionnaires, but in schedules, the literacy level of the respondent is not a major concern as the responses have to be recorded by enumerators.
• Wider distribution of questionnaires is possible but this is difficult with schedules.
• There is less accuracy and completeness of responses in questionnaires as compared to schedules.
• The success of questionnaires depends on the quality of questions but success of a schedule depends on the enumerators.
• The physical appearance of questionnaire matters a lot, which is less important in case of schedules.
• Observation method cannot be used along with questionnaires but it can be used along with schedule.

We explore and analyse the life of a social chapter or entity, whether it be a family, a person, an institution or a community, with the help of a case study. The purpose of case study method is to identify the factors and reasons that account for particular behaviour patterns of a sample chapter and its association with other social or environmental factors.

Generally social researchers use case study method to understand the complex social phenomenon and to identify the factors related to this phenomenon.

Case study provides the clues and ideas to a researcher for further research study. By adopting case study method, a researcher gets to know about happenings in the past, which could be related to the research studies and analyse the problem with better perspectives.

Assumptions of case study method

The assumptions made in a case study method are as follows:

• Case study depends on the imagination of the investigator who is analysing the case study. The investigator makes up his procedure as he goes along.
• History related to the case is complete and as coherent as it could be.
• It is advisable to supplement the case data by observational, statistical and historical data, since these provide standards for assessing the reliability and consistency of the case material.
• Efforts should be made to ascertain the reliability of life history data by examining the internal consistency of the material.
• A judicious combination of techniques of data collection is a prerequisite for securing data that is culturally meaningful and scientifically significant.

Advantages of Case Study Method

Key advantages of the case study method are as follows:

• Provides the basis for understanding complex social phenomenon and all related factors affecting the social phenomenon.
• Provides clues and ideas for exploratory research. When the researcher is not able to get a fair idea about the research, past happenings mentioned in a case study help the researcher get clues and ideas.
• Case study helps in generating objectives for exploratory research.
• It suggests the new courses of inquiry.
• Case study helps in formulating research hypothesis.

Disadvantages of Case Study Method

Some important disadvantages of case study method are as follows:

• Reliability : Data collected through case study may not be reliable or it can be difficult to verify the reliability of data in the current scenario.
• Adequacy : Data collected through case studies may not be adequate for research work as data is not pertinent to the research conditions.
• Representative : Data presented by case studies represents the happenings with unknown circumstances to a researcher. Hence, it cannot be the true representation of events to a researcher.

Case study as a method of business research

A detailed case study helps the researcher identify the reasons behind business related problems. As it can be possible that that particular incident has happened in past, so the current issues can be sorted out, by referring to the same case.

In depth analysis of selected cases is of particular value to business research when a complex set of variables may be at work in generating observed results and intensive study is needed to unravel the complexities.

The exploratory investigator should have an active curiosity and willingness to deviate from the initial plan, when the finding suggests a new course of enquiry, which might prove more productive. With the help of case study method, the risk can be minimized in any decision-making process.

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18 Case Study Method

Ms. Beliyaluxmi Devi

1. Introduction

2. Case Study

3 Techniques used for case studies

4 Sources of data for case studies

5 Types of case Studies

6 Advantage and limitation

Learning Objectives:

•  To learn what is case study and distinction from case history; identify the application of case study;
•  To discuss how to plan case study; and
•  To understand the advantage and limitation of case study
• Introduction

Among the various methods of data collection, case study is certainly one popular form of qualitative analysis involving careful and complete observation of a case. A case is a social unit with a deviant behavior, and may be an event, problem, process, activity, programme, of a social unit. The unit may be a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group, a community or even an entire society (Kothari, 2014). But it is a bounded system that has the boundaries of the case. Case Study therefore is an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration. It is extensively used in psychology, education, sociology, anthropology, economics and political science. It aims at obtaining a complete and detailed account of a social phenomenon or a social event of a social unit. In case study, data can be collected from multiple sources by using any qualitative method of data collection like interviews, observation and it may also include documents, artifacts etc. Case study method is a type of data collection that goes in depth understanding rather than breadth. Case study can be descriptive as we observe and write in description as well as it can also be an exploratory that is we wrote what was said. Pierre Guillaume Frederic Le Play (1855), a mathematician and natural scientist, is considered as the founder of case study method as he used it for the first time in his publication Les Ouvriers Europeens.

2.1 Definitions of Case Study Methods

Case study has been defined differently by different scholars from time to time. Some of them are presented below.

• Young, P.V. (1984): Case study is a comprehensive study of a social unit, be it a person, a group of persons, an institute, a community or a family.
• Groode and Hatt (1953): It is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit
• Cooley, C.H. (2007): Case study depends our perception and gives clear insight into life directory.
• Bogardus, E. S. (1925): The method of examining specially and in detail a given situation
• Robson C. (1993): A strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context using multiple sources of evidence.

So critical analysis of these definitions, reveal that case study is a method of minute and detail study of a situation concerning a social unit in an intensive and comprehensive manner in order to understand the personal as well as hidden dimensions of human life.

2.2 Characteristics of Case Study

The main characteristics of the case study are (www.studylecturenotes.com):

A descriptive study:

• The data collected constitute descriptions of psychological processes and events, and of the contexts in which they occurred.
• The main emphasis is always on the construction of verbal descriptions of behavior or experience but rarely quantitative data may be collected. In short case study is more of a qualitative method rather than quantitative method.
• High levels of detail are provided.
• The behavior pattern of the concerned unit is studied directly wherein efforts are made to know the mutual inter-relationship of causal factors.

Narrowly focused:

• Typically a case study offers a complete and comprehensive description of all facets of a social unit, be it a single individual or may be a social group.
• Often the case study focuses on a limited aspect of a person, such as their psychopathological symptoms.

Combines objective and subjective data:

Researchers may combine objective and subjective data. Both the data are regarded as valid data for analysis. It enables case study to achieved in-depth understanding of the behavior and experience of a single individual.

Process-oriented:

• The case study method enables the researcher to explore and describe the nature of processes, which occur over time.
• In contrast to the experimental method, which basically provides a stilled ‘snapshot’ of processes, case study continued over time like for example the development of language in children over time.

2.3. Difference between Case Study and Case History

The Case study method helps retaining the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real life events – such as individual life cycles, small group behavior, etc. It is like a case history of a patient. As a patient goes to the doctor with some serious disease, the doctor records the case history. Analysis of case history helps in the diagnosis of the patient’s illness (http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-case-study-and-vs-case-history).

Although most of us confuse case study and case history to be the same, however, there exists a difference between these two terms. They are being used in many disciplines and allow the researcher to be more informative of people, and events. First, let us define the word case study. A case study refers to a research method where a person, group or an event is being investigated which is used by researchers whereas a case history, on the other hand, refers to a record of data which contributes to a case study; usually case history is used by doctors to investigate the patients. This is the main difference between a case study and case history.

(i) What is a Case Study?

A case study is a research method used to investigate an individual, a group of people, or a particular phenomenon. The case study has been used in many disciplines especially in social science, anthropology, sociology, psychology, and political science. A case study allows the researcher to gain an in-depth understanding of the topic. To conduct a case study, the researcher can use a number of techniques. For example, observation, interviews, usage of secondary data such as documents, records, etc. It usually goes on for a longer period because the researcher has to explore the topic deeply.

The case study method was first used in the clinical medicine so that the doctor has a clear understanding of the history of the patient. Various methods can be used in a case study for example a psychologist use observation to observe the individual, use interview method to broaden the understanding. To create a clear picture of the problem, the questions can be directed not only to the individual on whom the case study is being conducted but also on those who are related to the individual. A special feature of case studies is that it produces qualitative data that are rich and authentic.

(ii) What is a Case History?

Unlike the case study that refers to a method, a case history refers to a record of an individual or even a group. Case histories are used in many disciplines such as psychology, sociology, medicine, psychiatry, etc. It consists of all the necessary information of the individual. In medicine, a case history refers to a specific record that reveals the personal information, medical condition, the medication that has been used and special conditions of the individual. Having a case history can be very beneficial in treatment of disease. However, a case history does not necessarily have to be connected to an individual; it can even be of an event that took place. The case history is a recording that narrates a sequence of events. Such a narrative allows the researcher to look at an event in retrospect.

• Techniques used for Case Studies

The techniques of case studies includes –

(i) Observation

It is a systematic data collection approach. Researchers use all of their senses to examine people in natural settings or naturally occurring situations. Observation of a field setting involves: prolonged engagement in a setting or social situation.

(ii) Interview

It is questioning and discussing to a person for the purpose of an evaluation or to generate information. (iii) Secondary Data

Secondary data refers to data that was collected by someone through secondary sources. (iv) Documents

Any writing that provides information, especially information which is of official in nature.

(v) Records

Anything that provides permanent information which can rely on or providing an evident officially.

• Sources of Data for Case Study

In case study, information may be collected from various sources. Some of the important sources include:

• Life histories
• Personal documents
• Letters and records
• Biographies
• Information obtained through interviews
• Observation
• Types of Case Study

The following are the types of case study according to the Graham R Gibbs (2012) –

• Individual case study: This study was first done by Shaw, Clifford R. (1930). In individual case study, life of a particular person, his activities and his totalities were accompanied.
• Set of individual case study: Group of person that practice different culture was studies. As for instance those lives in rural area and those living in urban area there will different cases between them.
• Community studies: In community studies, it may include hundreds of people from a community that picked upon for some reason.
• Social Group Studies: Group of people that defined their social position, for example a group of musician or a group of drugs taker
• Studies of organizations and institutions: Study for a particular organizations or an institutions
• Studies of events, roles and relationships: Similar to individual case study but more focus on events, roles and relationships that involved. For example we can take the role of a housewife.

Identifying a Case Study:

Determine if a case study will answer your research question

Identify the case and find out what type of case study method or technique will be employed

When the researcher makes interpretations, the researcher should be able to learn the meaning of the case data while interpreting

How to plan a case study?

The following points are required to plan a case study such as –

Conceptual Framework: based on the theory it displays the important features of a case study and show relationships between features.

Research Questions: Consist of conceptual framework which is consisting of focused and answerable questions.

Research Design: Plan out of what to include or what not to include before data collection

Methods and Instruments: an appropriate method should be employed to answer the research question

Analysis of Data and interpretation: Collected information should be analysed using statistical tools and interpret the findings incorporating the ideas and knowledge gathered during data collection

• Advantages and Limitations

6.1 Advantages of Case Study

The following are some of the advantages of case study –

a) It facilitates intensive study and in-depth analysis of a social unit which help in contradicting established theory.

b) In-depth and comprehensive information are collected through this method which helps in stimulating new research.

c) It is suitable for collecting data pertaining to sensitive areas of a social phenomenon.

d) It helps to collect details regarding the diverse habits, traits and qualities of the unit under investigation (Kothari, 2014).

e) The researcher can understand better the social change of different facets of a social unit every now and then.

f) This study can be a means to understand the past of a social unit because of its emphasis of historical analysis.

g) The researcher can used any type of methods like interview, questionnaire, documents, self-reports etc.

h) Case study enables to generalize the knowledge amusing from the information collected.

i) A real personal experience can be recorded which enlighten and reveal the real man’s inner determined.

j) The data obtained through case study is useful for formulation of hypothesis and preparation of schedule and questionnaire for such types of study and for further research (Kothari, 2014).

k) It helps in enhancing his/her experience, ability and skill in content analysis of the data.

l) It is useful for therapeutic and administrative purposes, particularly in diagnosis, treatment and therapy etc.

6.2 Limitations of Case Study

a) Case history records could be open to errors due to faulty selection of case and inaccurate observation (Kothari, 2014).

b) There are chances of inaccuracy of the data as no uniform and standardized system of recording case histories has been developed.

c) Data collected from case study usually based on several assumptions which may not be very realistic at times

d) This method is mainly qualitative rather than quantitative, hence there may be question of subjectivity.

e) It is very difficult to draw generalizations on the basis of a few cases.

f) Sampling is not possible in case study as this method can be used only in a limited unit.

g) The information collected from case study is incomparable since each informant gives his/her own opinion. Therefore, replication is not possible.

h) Since this method is fully based on the informant, sometimes the informant himself thinks that he/she have the full knowledge and the information given by them may include some fake also.

i) The investigator’s bias might distort the quality of the case study (Kothari, 2014).

j) Case Study is time-consuming and costly in certain cases.

k) This method cannot be effectively used in big and complex societies (Kothari, 2014).

Case study is an important method employed for collection of qualitative data for an in depth, intensive and comprehensive scientific study of a social unit. This social unit can be an individual, a family, a community, a group or even an entire society. Case study is quite different from the case history which focuses on the recording of personal information. Different methods of case study such as individual, community, social group, organization and events using appropriate techniques (observation, interview, secondary data like documents and records) are used based on the objectives of the research problem. The main sources of data in case studies includes life histories, personal documents, letters and records, biographies, information obtained through interviews and observation. Case studies facilitate intensive study and in-depth analysis of a social unit contradicting established theory. It helps in contradicting established theory and stimulating new research. However, difficulties arises in case studies due to a number of reasons which includes inconsistency in data, not possible to replicate the findings, interviewing key and right informants, expertise of the investigator, constant monitoring of interaction between the theoretical issues being studied and collected data, and interpretation of the data needs to be carefully considered.

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• Interview Research

Research Methods Guide: Interview Research

• Introduction
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• Data Analysis
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Tutorial Videos: Interview Method

Interview as a Method for Qualitative Research

Goals of Interview Research

• Preferences
• They help you explain, better understand, and explore research subjects' opinions, behavior, experiences, phenomenon, etc.
• Interview questions are usually open-ended questions so that in-depth information will be collected.

Mode of Data Collection

There are several types of interviews, including:

• Face-to-Face
• Online (e.g. Skype, Googlehangout, etc)

FAQ: Conducting Interview Research

What are the important steps involved in interviews?

• Think about who you will interview
• Think about what kind of information you want to obtain from interviews
• Think about why you want to pursue in-depth information around your research topic
• Introduce yourself and explain the aim of the interview
• Devise your questions so interviewees can help answer your research question
• Have a sequence to your questions / topics by grouping them in themes
• Make sure you can easily move back and forth between questions / topics
• Make sure your questions are clear and easy to understand
• Do not ask leading questions
• Do you want to bring a second interviewer with you?
• Do you want to bring a notetaker?
• Do you want to record interviews? If so, do you have time to transcribe interview recordings?
• Where will you interview people? Where is the setting with the least distraction?
• How long will each interview take?
• Do you need to address terms of confidentiality?

Do I have to choose either a survey or interviewing method?

No.  In fact, many researchers use a mixed method - interviews can be useful as follow-up to certain respondents to surveys, e.g., to further investigate their responses.

Is training an interviewer important?

Yes, since the interviewer can control the quality of the result, training the interviewer becomes crucial.  If more than one interviewers are involved in your study, it is important to have every interviewer understand the interviewing procedure and rehearse the interviewing process before beginning the formal study.

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