research paradigm least concerned about generalizing its findings

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PART A: PRINCIPLES AND PLANNING FOR RESEARCH

1. Which of the following should not be a criterion for a good research project?

• Demonstrates the abilities of the researcher
• Is dependent on the completion of other projects
• Demonstrates the integration of different fields of knowledge
• Develops the skills of the researcher

b.  Is dependent on the completion of other projects

2. Which form of reasoning is the process of drawing a specific conclusion from a set of premises?

• Objective reasoning
• Positivistic reasoning
• Inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning

d:  Deductive reasoning

3. Research that seeks to examine the findings of a study by using the same design but a different sample is which of the following?

• An exploratory study
• A replication study
• An empirical study
• Hypothesis testing

b:  A replication study

4. A researcher designs an experiment to test how variables interact to influence job-seeking behaviours. The main purpose of the study was:

• Description
• Exploration
• Explanation

d:  Explanation

5. Cyber bullying at work is a growing threat to employee job satisfaction. Researchers want to find out why people do this and how they feel about it. The primary purpose of the study is:

c:  Exploration

6. A theory: 

• Is an accumulated body of knowledge
• Includes inconsequential ideas
• Is independent of research methodology
• Should be viewed uncritically

a:  Is an accumulated body of knowledge

7. Which research method is a bottom-up approach to research?

• Deductive method
• Explanatory method
• Inductive method
• Exploratory method

c:  Inductive method

8. How much confidence should you place in a single research study?

• You should trust research findings after different researchers have replicated the findings
• You should completely trust a single research study
• Neither a nor b
• Both a and b 

a:  You should trust research findings after different researchers have replicated the findings

9. A qualitative research problem statement:

• Specifies the research methods to be utilized
• Specifies a research hypothesis
• Expresses a relationship between variables
• Conveys a sense of emerging design

d:  Conveys a sense of emerging design

10. Which of the following is a good research question?

• To produce a report on student job searching behaviours
• To identify the relationship between self-efficacy and student job searching behaviours
• Students with higher levels of self-efficacy will demonstrate more active job searching behaviours
• Do students with high levels of self-efficacy demonstrate more active job searching behaviours?

d:  Do students with high levels of self-efficacy demonstrate more active job searching behaviours?

11. A review of the literature prior to formulating research questions allows the researcher to :

• Provide an up-to-date understanding of the subject, its significance, and structure
• Guide the development of research questions
• Present the kinds of research methodologies used in previous studies
• All of the above

d:  All of the above

12. Sometimes a comprehensive review of the literature prior to data collection is not recommended by:

• Ethnomethodology
• Grounded theory
• Symbolic interactionism
• Feminist theory

b:  Grounded theory

13. The feasibility of a research study should be considered in light of: 

• Cost and time required to conduct the study
• Access to gatekeepers and respondents
• Potential ethical concerns

14. Research that uses qualitative methods for one phase and quantitative methods for the next phase is known as:

• Action research
• Mixed-method research
• Quantitative research
• Pragmatic research

b:  Mixed-method research

15. Research hypotheses are:

• Formulated prior to a review of the literature
• Statements of predicted relationships between variables
• B but not A
• Both A and B

c:  B but not A

16. Which research approach is based on the epistemological viewpoint of pragmatism? 

• Qualitative research
• Mixed-methods research

c:  Mixed-methods research

17. Adopting ethical principles in research means: 

• Avoiding harm to participants
• The researcher is anonymous
• Deception is only used when necessary
• Selected informants give their consent

a:  Avoiding harm to participants

18. A radical perspective on ethics suggests that: 

• Researchers can do anything they want
• The use of checklists of ethical actions is essential
• The powers of Institutional Review Boards should be strengthened
• Ethics should be based on self-reflexivity

d:  Ethics should be based on self-reflexivity

19. Ethical problems can arise when researching the Internet because:

• Everyone has access to digital media
• Respondents may fake their identities
• Researchers may fake their identities
• Internet research has to be covert

b:  Respondents may fake their identities

20. The Kappa statistic: 

• Is a measure of inter-judge validity
• Compares the level of agreement between two judges against what might have been predicted by chance
• Ranges from 0 to +1
• Is acceptable above a score of 0.5

b:  Compares the level of agreement between two judges against what might have been predicted by chance

PART B: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY  

1. Which research paradigm is most concerned about generalizing its findings? 

a:  Quantitative research

2. A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable is called:

• An intervening variable
• A dependent variable
• An independent variable
• A numerical variable

c:  An independent variable

3. A study of teaching professionals posits that their performance-related pay increases their motivation which in turn leads to an increase in their job satisfaction. What kind of variable is ‘motivation”’ in this study? 

• Extraneous 
• Confounding
• Intervening
• Manipulated

c:  Intervening

4. Which correlation is the strongest? 

5. When interpreting a correlation coefficient expressing the relationship between two variables, it is important not to:

• Assume causality
• Measure the values for X and Y independently
• Choose X and Y values that are normally distributed
• Check the direction of the relationship

a:  Assume causality

6. Which of the following can be described as a nominal variable? 

• Annual income
• Annual sales
• Geographical location of a firm

d:  Geographical location of a firm

7. A positive correlation occurs when:

• Two variables remain constant
• Two variables move in the same direction
• One variable goes up and the other goes down
• Two variables move in opposite directions

b:  Two variables move in the same direction

8. The key defining characteristic of experimental research is that:

• The independent variable is manipulated
• Hypotheses are proved
• A positive correlation exists
• Samples are large

a:  The independent variable is manipulated

9. Qualitative research is used in all the following circumstances, EXCEPT:

• It is based on a collection of non-numerical data such as words and pictures
• It often uses small samples
• It uses the inductive method
• It is typically used when a great deal is already known about the topic of interest

d:  It is typically used when a great deal is already known about the topic of interest

10. In an experiment, the group that does not receive the intervention is called:

• The experimental group
• The participant group
• The control group
• The treatment group

c:  The control group

11. Which generally cannot be guaranteed in conducting qualitative studies in the field? 

• Keeping participants from physical and emotional harm
• Gaining informed consent
• Assuring anonymity rather than just confidentiality
• Maintaining consent forms

c:  Assuring anonymity rather than just confidentiality

12. Which of the following is not ethical practice in research with humans? 

• Maintaining participants’ anonymity
• Informing participants that they are free to withdraw at any time
• Requiring participants to continue until the study has been completed

d:  Requiring participants to continue until the study has been completed

13. What do we call data that are used for a new study but which were collected by an earlier researcher for a different set of research questions?

• Secondary data
• Field notes
• Qualitative data
• Primary data

a:  Secondary data

14. When each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected, this is called:

• A snowball sample
• A stratified sample
• A random probability sample
• A non-random sample

c:  A random probability sample

15. Which of the following techniques yields a simple random sample of hospitals?

• Randomly selecting a district and then sampling all hospitals within the district
• Numbering all the elements of a hospital sampling frame and then using a random number generator to pick hospitals from the table
• Listing hospitals by sector and choosing a proportion from within each sector at random
• Choosing volunteer hospitals to participate

b:  Numbering all the elements of a hospital sampling frame and then using a random number generator to pick hospitals from the table

16. Which of the following statements are true?

• The larger the sample size, the larger the confidence interval
• The smaller the sample size, the greater the sampling error
• The more categories being measured, the smaller the sample size
• A confidence level of 95 percent is always sufficient

b:  The smaller the sample size, the greater the sampling error

17. Which of the following will produce the least sampling error?

• A large sample based on convenience sampling 
• A small sample based on random sampling
• A large snowball sample
• A large sample based on random sampling

d:  A large sample based on random sampling

18. When people are readily available, volunteer, or are easily recruited to the sample, this is called:

• Snowball sampling
• Convenience sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Random sampling

b:  Convenience sampling

19. In qualitative research, sampling that involves selecting diverse cases is referred to as:

• Typical-case sampling
• Critical-case sampling
• Intensity sampling
• Maximum variation sampling

d:  Maximum variation sampling

20. A test accurately indicates an employee’s scores on a future criterion (e.g., conscientiousness).  What kind of validity is this?

a:  Predictive

PART C: DATA COLLECTION METHODS  

1. When designing a questionnaire it is important to do each of the following EXCEPT

• Pilot the questionnaire
• Avoid jargon
• Avoid double questions
• Use leading questions

d:  Use leading questions

2. One advantage of using a questionnaire is that:

• Probe questions can be asked
• Respondents can be put at ease
• Interview bias can be avoided
• Response rates are always high

c:  Interview bias can be avoided

3. Which of the following is true of observations?

• It takes less time than interviews
• It is often not possible to determine exactly why people behave as they do
• Covert observation raises fewer ethical concerns than overt

b:  It is often not possible to determine exactly why people behave as they do

4. A researcher secretly becomes an active member of a group in order to observe their behaviour. This researcher is acting as:

• An overt participant observer
• A covert non-participant observer
• A covert participant observer
• None of the above

c:  A covert participant observer

5. All of the following are advantages of structured observation, EXCEPT:

• Results can be replicated at a different time
• The coding schedule might impose a framework on what is being observed
• Data can be collected that participants may not realize is important
• Data do not have to rely on the recall of participants

b:  The coding schedule might impose a framework on what is being observed

6. When conducting an interview, asking questions such as: "What else? or ‘Could you expand on that?’ are all forms of:

• Structured responses
• Category questions

7. Secondary data can include which of the following? 

• Government statistics
• Personal diaries
• Organizational records

8. An ordinal scale is:

• The simplest form of measurement
• A scale with an absolute zero point
• A rank-order scale of measurement
• A scale with equal intervals between ranks

c:  A rank-order scale of measurement

9. Which term measures the extent to which scores from a test can be used to infer or predict performance in some activity? 

• Face validity
• Content reliability
• Criterion-related validity
• Construct validity

c:  Criterion-related validity

10. The ‘reliability’of a measure refers to the researcher asking:

• Does it give consistent results?
• Does it measure what it is supposed to measure?
• Can the results be generalized?
• Does it have face reliability?

a:  Does it give consistent results?

11. Interviewing is the favoured approach EXCEPT when:

• There is a need for highly personalized data
• It is important to ask supplementary questions
• High numbers of respondents are needed
• Respondents have difficulty with written language

c:  High numbers of respondents are needed

12. Validity in interviews is strengthened by the following EXCEPT:

• Building rapport with interviewees
• Multiple questions cover the same theme
• Constructing interview schedules that contain themes drawn from the literature
• Prompting respondents to expand on initial responses

b:  Multiple questions cover the same theme

13. Interview questions should:

• Lead the respondent
• Probe sensitive issues
• Be delivered in a neutral tone
• Test the respondents’ powers of memory

c:  Be delivered in a neutral tone

14. Active listening skills means:

• Asking as many questions as possible
• Avoiding silences
• Keeping to time
• Attentive listening

d:  Attentive listening

15. All the following are strengths of focus groups EXCEPT:

• They allow access to a wide range of participants
• Discussion allows for the validation of ideas and views
• They can generate a collective perspective
• They help maintain confidentiality

d:  They help maintain confidentiality

16. Which of the following is not always true about focus groups?

• The ideal size is normally between 6 and 12 participants
• Moderators should introduce themselves to the group
• Participants should come from diverse backgrounds
• The moderator poses preplanned questions

c:  Participants should come from diverse backgrounds

17. A disadvantage of using secondary data is that:

• The data may have been collected with reference to research questions that are not those of the researcher
• The researcher may bring more detachment in viewing the data than original researchers could muster
• Data have often been collected by teams of experienced researchers
• Secondary data sets are often available and accessible

a:  The data may have been collected with reference to research questions that are not those of the researcher

18. All of the following are sources of secondary data EXCEPT:

• Official statistics
• A television documentary
• The researcher’s research diary
• A company’s annual report

c:  The researcher’s research diary

19. Which of the following is not true about visual methods?

• They are not reliant on respondent recall
• The have low resource requirements
• They do not rely on words to capture what is happening
• They can capture what is happening in real time

b:  The have low resource requirements

20. Avoiding naïve empiricism in the interpretation of visual data means:

• Understanding the context in which they were produced
• Ensuring that visual images such as photographs are accurately taken
• Only using visual images with other data gathering sources
• Planning the capture of visual data carefully

a:  Understanding the context in which they were produced

PART D: ANALYSIS AND REPORT WRITING  

1. Which of the following is incorrect when naming a variable in SPSS?

• Must begin with a letter and not a number
• Must end in a full stop
• Cannot exceed 64 characters
• Cannot include symbols such as ?, & and %

b:  Must end in a full stop

2. Which of the following is not an SPSS Type variable?

3. A graph that uses vertical bars to represent data is called:

• A bar chart
• A pie chart
• A line graph
• A vertical graph

a:  A bar chart

4. The purpose of descriptive statistics is to:

• Summarize the characteristics of a data set
• Draw conclusions from the data

a:  Summarize the characteristics of a data set

5. The measure of the extent to which responses vary from the mean is called:

• The normal distribution
• The standard deviation
• The variance

c:  The standard deviation

6. To compare the performance of a group at time T1 and then at T2, we would use:

• A chi-squared test
• One-way analysis of variance
• Analysis of variance
• A paired t-test

d:  A paired t-test

7. A Type 1 error occurs in a situation where:

• The null hypothesis is accepted when it is in fact true
• The null hypothesis is rejected when it is in fact false
• The null hypothesis is rejected when it is in fact true
• The null hypothesis is accepted when it is in fact false

c:  The null hypothesis is rejected when it is in fact true

8. The significance level

• Is set after a statistical test is conducted
• Is always set at 0.05
• Results in a p -value
• Measures the probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis

d:  Measures the probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis

9. To predict the value of the dependent variable for a new case based on the knowledge of one or more independent variables, we would use

• Regression analysis
• Correlation analysis
• Kolmogorov-Smirnov test

a:  Regression analysis

10. In conducting secondary data analysis, researchers should ask themselves all of the following EXCEPT:

• Who produced the document?
• Is the material genuine?
• How can respondents be re-interviewed?
• Why was the document produced?

c:  How can respondents be re-interviewed?

11. Which of the following are not true of reflexivity?

• It recognizes that the researcher is not a neutral observer
• It has mainly been applied to the analysis of qualitative data
• It is part of a post-positivist tradition
• A danger of adopting a reflexive stance is the researcher can become the focus of the study

c:  It is part of a post-positivist tradition

12. Validity in qualitative research can be strengthened by all of the following EXCEPT:

• Member checking for accuracy and interpretation
• Transcribing interviews to improve accuracy of data
• Exploring rival explanations
• Analysing negative cases

b:  Transcribing interviews to improve accuracy of data

13. Qualitative data analysis programs are useful for each of the following EXCEPT: 

• Manipulation of large amounts of data
• Exploring of the data against new dimensions
• Querying of data
• Generating codes

d:  Generating codes

14. Which part of a research report contains details of how the research was planned and conducted?

• Introduction

b:  Design 

15. Which of the following is a form of research typically conducted by managers and other professionals to address issues in their organizations and/or professional practice?

• Basic research
• Professional research
• Predictive research

a:  Action research

16. Plagiarism can be avoided by:

• Copying the work of others accurately
• Paraphrasing the author’s text in your own words
• Cut and pasting from the Internet
• Quoting directly without revealing the source

b:  Paraphrasing the author’s text in your own words

17. In preparing for a presentation, you should do all of the following EXCEPT:

• Practice the presentation
• Ignore your nerves
• Get to know more about your audience
• Take an advanced look, if possible, at the facilities

b:  Ignore your nerves

18. You can create interest in your presentation by:

• Using bullet points
• Reading from notes
• Maximizing the use of animation effects
• Using metaphors

d:  Using metaphors

19. In preparing for a viva or similar oral examination, it is best if you have:

• Avoided citing the examiner in your thesis
• Made exaggerated claims on the basis of your data
• Published and referenced your own article(s)
• Tried to memorize your work

c:  Published and referenced your own article(s)

20. Grounded theory coding:

• Makes use of a priori concepts from the literature
• Uses open coding, selective coding, then axial coding
• Adopts a deductive stance
• Stops when theoretical saturation has been reached

d:  Stops when theoretical saturation has been reached

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Generalization in quantitative and qualitative research: myths and strategies

Affiliation.

• 1 Humanalysis, Inc., Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, USA. [email protected]
• PMID: 20598692
• DOI: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2010.06.004

Generalization, which is an act of reasoning that involves drawing broad inferences from particular observations, is widely-acknowledged as a quality standard in quantitative research, but is more controversial in qualitative research. The goal of most qualitative studies is not to generalize but rather to provide a rich, contextualized understanding of some aspect of human experience through the intensive study of particular cases. Yet, in an environment where evidence for improving practice is held in high esteem, generalization in relation to knowledge claims merits careful attention by both qualitative and quantitative researchers. Issues relating to generalization are, however, often ignored or misrepresented by both groups of researchers. Three models of generalization, as proposed in a seminal article by Firestone, are discussed in this paper: classic sample-to-population (statistical) generalization, analytic generalization, and case-to-case transfer (transferability). Suggestions for enhancing the capacity for generalization in terms of all three models are offered. The suggestions cover such issues as planned replication, sampling strategies, systematic reviews, reflexivity and higher-order conceptualization, thick description, mixed methods research, and the RE-AIM framework within pragmatic trials.

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What is a Research Paradigm? Types of Research Paradigms with Examples

If you’re a researcher, you’ve probably heard the term “ research paradigm .” And, if you are a researcher, especially if you haven’t been trained under the social sciences, you are probably confused by the concept of a research paradigm . What is a research paradigm? How does it apply to my research? Why is it important? 

Research paradigms refer to the beliefs and assumptions that provide the structure for your research. These can be characteristics of your discipline or even your personal beliefs. For example, if you are a physical scientist and you are conducting research on the performance of a newly developed catalyst for removing chemical impurities from drinking water, your study is probably based on the premise that there is one reality, and your results will show that the new product either works better or it doesn’t. However, if your research discipline is education and you’re looking at the effects of parental literacy rates on the literacy or academic success of their children, you will not expect a such a definite result, and you may be examining your topic from different viewpoints, such as cultural or socio-economic. Your findings will then depend on those assumptions, beliefs, and biases.  

The rest of this article will try to clarify the concept of research paradigms, provide a research paradigm definition, and offer some examples of different types of research paradigms . While years of study may not completely clear up your confusion about research paradigms , perhaps you will think a little better of them and how they can help you in your work and maybe even in your personal life.  

Table of Contents

What is a research paradigm?  

According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, a paradigm is “ a philosophical and theoretical framework of a scientific school or discipline within which theories, laws, and generalizations and the experiments performed in support of them are formulated. ” 1 As applied in the context of research, a research paradigm is a worldview or philosophical framework, including ideas, beliefs, and biases, that guides the research process. The research paradigm in which a study is situated helps determine the manner in which the research will be conducted.  

The research paradigm is the framework into which the theories and practices of your discipline fit to create the research plan. This foundation guides all areas of your research plan, including the aim of the study, research question, instruments or measurements used, and analysis methods.   

Most research paradigms are based on one of two model types: positivism or interpretivism. These guide the theories and methodologies used in the research project. In general, positivist research paradigms lead to quantitative studies and interpretivist research paradigms lead to qualitative studies. Of course, there are many variations of both of these research paradigm types, some of which lead to mixed-method studies.  

What are the three pillars of research paradigms ?     

So, now you may be asking, what makes up a research paradigm ? How are they formed and categorized? The research paradigm framework is supported by three pillars: ontology, epistemology, and methodology. Some scholars have recently begun adding another pillar to research paradigms : ethics or axiology. However, this article will only discuss the three traditional aspects, which together define the research paradigm and provide the base on which to build your research project.  

Ontology is the study of the nature of reality. Is there a single reality, multiple realities, or no reality at all? These are the questions that the philosophy of ontology attempts to answer. The oft-used example of an ontological question is “Does God exist?” Two possible single realities exist: yes or no.  

Think about your research project with this in mind; that is, does a single reality exist within your research? If you’re a medical researcher, the answer is probably yes. You’re looking for specific results that ideally have clear yes or no answers. If you’re an anthropologist, there probably isn’t one clear, specific answer to your research question but multiple possible realities, and the study results are interpreted through the researcher’s viewpoint or paradigm.  

Epistemology is the study of knowledge and how we can know reality. It incorporates the extent and ways to gain knowledge and how to validate that knowledge. A frequently used example question in epistemology is “How is it possible to know whether or not God exists?”  

The epistemology of your research project will help determine your approach to your study. For example, if the medical researcher believes there is one singular truth, an objective approach will be taken. On the other hand, if the anthropologist believes in multiple realities viewed through a cultural lens, the research results will be more subjective and understood only in the proper context. This difference divides research studies into those using quantitative and qualitative techniques.  

Methodology is the study of how one investigates the environment and validates the knowledge gained. It attempts to answer the question “how to go about discovering the answer/reality.” Addressing this pillar leads to specific data collection and analysis plans.   

The medical researcher may create a research plan that includes a clinical trial, during which blood tests that measure a specific protein are conducted. These results are then analyzed, with a focus on differences within groups. The anthropologist, on the other hand, may conduct observations, examine artifacts, or set up interviews to determine certain aspects of reality within the context of a group’s culture. In this situation, yes or no answers are not sought but a truth is discovered.  

What is the purpose of research paradigms ?  

Put all the information about the three pillars of a research paradigm together, and you can see the purpose of research paradigms . Research paradigms establish the structure and foundation for a research project.   

Once the research paradigm has been determined, an appropriate research plan can be created. The philosophical basis of the study guides what knowledge is sought, how that knowledge can be discovered, and how to form the collected information or data into the knowledge being sought. The research paradigm clearly outlines the path to investigate your topic. This brings clarity to your study and improves the quality of your methods and analysis.  

In addition, it is important for researchers to understand how their own beliefs, assumptions, and biases can affect the research process. The study’s data collection, analysis, and interpretation will be impacted by the worldview of the researcher. Knowing the underlying research paradigm and how it frames the study allows researchers to better understand the effect of their perspective on the study results.   

Types of research paradigms  

As mentioned previously, there are two basic types of research paradigms , from which other frequently used paradigms are derived. This section will briefly describe these two major research paradigms .   

Positivist paradigm – Proponents of a positivist paradigm believe that there is a single reality that can be measured and understood. Therefore, these researchers are likely to utilize quantitative methods in their studies. The research process for positivist paradigm studies tend to propose an empirical hypothesis, which is then supported or refuted through the data collection and analysis. Positivists approach research in an objective manner and statistically investigate the existence of quantitative relationships between variables instead of looking for the qualitative reason behind those relationships. Researchers who subscribe to this paradigm also believe that the results of one study can be generalized to similar situations. Positivist paradigms are most frequently used by physical scientists.  

Interpretivism paradigm – Interpretivists believe in the existence of multiple realities rather than a single reality. This is the research paradigm used by the majority of qualitative studies conducted in the social sciences. Interpretivism holds that because human behavior is so complex, it cannot be studied by probabilistic models, such as those used under positivist paradigms . Knowledge can only be created by interpreting the meanings that people put on behaviors and events. Therefore, studies employing this framework are necessarily subjective and are greatly affected by the researcher’s personal viewpoint. Interpretivist paradigm research is conducted within the reality of those being studied, not in a contrived environment such as a laboratory. Because of the nature of interpretivist studies, their results are only valid under the particular circumstances of the study and are usually not generalizable.   

Research paradigm examples    

Positivist and interpretivist research paradigms , sometimes referred to as quantitative and qualitative paradigms, are the two major approaches to research. However, many other variations of these have been used. Following are brief descriptions of some of the more popular of these research paradigm variations.  

Pragmatism paradigm – Pragmatists believe that reality is continually changing amid the flow of constantly changing situations. Therefore, rather than use a single research paradigm , they employ the framework that is most applicable to the research question they are examining. Both qualitative and quantitative techniques are often used as positivist and interpretivist approaches are combined. Pragmatists believe that the best research method is the one that will most effectively address the research question.  

Constructivist paradigm – Like interpretivists, constructivists believe that there are numerous realities, not a single reality. The constructivist paradigm holds that people construct their own understanding of the world through experiencing and reflecting on those experiences. Constructivist research seeks to understand the meanings that people attach to those experiences. Therefore, qualitative techniques, such as interviews and case studies, are frequently used. Constructivists are seeking the “why” of events. Constructivism is also a popular theory of learning that focuses on how children and other learners create knowledge from their experiences and learn better through experimentation than through direct instruction.  

Post-positivism paradigm – Post-positivists veer away from the concept of reality as being an absolute certainty and view it instead in a more probabilistic manner, thus taking a more subjective viewpoint. They believe that research outcomes can never be totally objective and a researcher’s worldview and biases can never be completely removed from the research results.  

Transformative paradigm – Proponents of transformative research reject both positivism and interpretivism, believing that these frameworks do not accurately represent the experiences of marginalized communities. Transformative researchers generally use both qualitative and quantitative techniques to better understand the disparities in community relationships, support social justice, and ultimately ensure transformative change.    

Combining research paradigms    

While most research is based on either a positivist (quantitative) or interpretivist (qualitative) foundations, some studies combine both. For example, quantitative and qualitative techniques are frequently used together in psychology studies. These types of studies are referred to as mixed-method research. Some research paradigms are themselves combinations of other paradigms and frequently employ all the associated research methods. Post-positivism combines the paradigms of positivism and interpretivism.  

5 steps to a paradigm shift  

Research studies aren’t the only things that can be considered to have paradigms. Researchers themselves bring a specific worldview to their work and produce higher quality work when they are aware of the effect their perspective has on their results. Understanding all the aspects of a personal paradigm, including beliefs, habits, and behaviors, can make it possible for that paradigm to be changed. Here are suggested steps to successfully shift your personal paradigm and increase the quality of your research 2 .  

• Identify the paradigm element you want to change – what part of your worldview do you want to change? What habitual or hidden behavior may be adversely affecting your research or your life? 
• Write down your goals – setting specific desired outcomes and putting them down on paper sets them in your subconscious.   
• Adjust your mindset – intentionally influencing your thoughts to support your goals can motivate you to create the change you want. Some suggested activities to help with this include journaling, reading motivational books, and spending time with like-minded people.  
• Do uncomfortable things – you need to get out of your comfort zone to effect real change. This will get your subconscious out of its usual habits and move you toward your goal.  
• Practice being who you want to be – the change you want will become solidified and part of your new paradigm once you break out of your old habit and keep repeating the new behavior so as to cement it in your subconscious.  

References:  

• Merriam-Webster Dictionary. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/paradigm [Accessed March 10, 2023]  
• What is research paradigm – explanation and examples. Peachy Essay. https://peachyessay.com/blogs/what-is-research-paradigm/ [Accessed March 10, 2023]  

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Research Paradigms: Explanation and Examples

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• 1st March 2022

Are you planning a research project? If so, you’ll need a research paradigm. But what exactly is a research paradigm, and why is it important? This blog post will cover the following:

●  The definition of a research paradigm

●  Why research paradigms are important

●  Common examples of research paradigms

●  Merging research paradigms

●  Expert editing and proofreading

Read on to find out more or learn about research paradigms in the video below!

The Definition of a Research Paradigm

A research paradigm is a philosophical framework that your research is based on. It offers a pattern of beliefs and understandings from which the theories and practices of your research project operate.

A research paradigm consists of ontology, epistemology, and research methodology .

●  Ontology answers the question: “What is reality?” That is, does a single reality exist within your research? An example of an ontological question would be: “Does God exist?” There are two possible realities (or ontologies) in response to this question: “Yes, God exists,” or “No, God does not exist.”

●  Epistemology is the study of knowledge. It answers the question: “How is it possible to know reality?” Epistemology incorporates the validity, parameters, and methods of acquiring knowledge. An example of an epistemological question would be: “How is it possible to know whether God exists or not?”

●  Research Methodology answers the question: “How do we go about discovering the answer or reality?” This includes the process of data collection and analysis. Research methodology should outline how you conduct your research and demonstrate that the findings are valid.

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Together, ontology and epistemology comprise research philosophy.

Research philosophy combined with research methodology comprises a research paradigm.

Why Are Research Paradigms Important?

Research paradigms are important because they form the philosophical basis of a research project. Research paradigms influence how different schools of learning (such as the sciences versus the humanities) undertake their research. Once a research philosophy has been determined, an appropriate methodology can be chosen.

Furthermore, a knowledge of the philosophical foundation of your research will increase its quality and improve your performance in any analysis you may have to undergo!

Common Examples of Research Paradigms

1. Positivism

Positivists believe that there’s a single reality that’s possible to measure and understand. Because of this, they’re most likely to use quantitative methods in their research. Typically, positivists propose a hypothesis that can be proved or disproved using statistical data analysis. Positivism tends to investigate the existence of a relationship between two variables rather than the reason behind it.

2. Constructivism

Constructivists believe that there’s no single reality or truth, but rather multiple realities. They devote themselves to understanding and interpreting the meaning attached to an action. For this reason, constructivists tend to use qualitative research methods , such as interviews or case studies, which focus on providing different perspectives. Constructivism aims to provide the answer to “why.” For example, asking “Why do 25% of the employees of an organization regularly arrive late to work?” rather than merely establishing the relationship between two variables (e.g., time of arrival at work and availability of nearby parking).

3. Pragmatists

Pragmatists believe that reality is continually interpreted and renegotiated against the backdrop of new and unpredictable situations. Because of this, the philosophy they apply in research depends on the research question itself. Pragmatists often combine positivist and constructivist principles in the same research project, using both qualitative and quantitative methods to investigate different components of a research problem. They believe that the optimal research methods are those that most successfully answer the research question.

Merging Research Paradigms

While most social science research operates from either a positivist (experimental) or constructivist paradigm, it’s possible to combine both, as the field of psychology often does. Quantitative and qualitative methodology are frequently used together in psychology, illustrating the subject’s footing in multiple research paradigms (positivist and constructivist).

Expert Editing and Proofreading

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Understanding Research Paradigm

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The chapter begins by unpacking the concept of research paradigm and its importance, exploring its historical development, and presenting an overview and comparison of major research paradigms. Furthermore, the chapter delves into the philosophical foundations of research paradigms, elucidating the role of epistemology, ontology, axiology, and methodology. It highlights the crucial link between research questions and paradigms, offering case studies that effectively illustrate how to align research questions with specific paradigms. Critiques and debates surrounding research paradigms are also addressed, shedding light on the diverse perspectives and ongoing discussions within the field. Additionally, the chapter provides invaluable guidance on how to navigate the complexities inherent in research paradigms. It offers a range of strategies and approaches to assist researchers in effectively manoeuvring through the intricacies of their chosen paradigm, ultimately leading to rigorous and impactful research outcomes. This chapter, therefore, serves as an essential resource for researchers alike, aiming to demystify the concept of research paradigms and emphasise their significance.

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A paradigm is a way of viewing the world, a set of ideas that is used to understand or explain something, often related to a specific subject (“Paradigm,” 2018). It is a way of framing what we know, what we can know, and how we can know it. To help you understand what a paradigm is, let us think about the various views on abortion. To some, abortion is a medical procedure that should be undertaken at the discretion of each individual woman who might experience an unwanted pregnancy. To others, abortion is murder, and members of society should collectively have the right to decide when, if at all, abortion should be undertaken. Chances are, if you have an opinion about this topic, you are pretty certain about the veracity of your perspective. Then again, the person who sits next to you on the bus may have a very different opinion and yet be equally confident about the truth of his or her perspective. Which of you is correct? You are each operating under a set of assumptions about the way the world does—or at least should—work. Perhaps your assumptions come from your particular political perspective, which helps shape your view on a variety of social issues, or perhaps your assumptions are based on what you learned from your parents or from a religion. Paradigms shape our stances on issues such as this one.

In social science, there are several predominant paradigms, each with its own unique ontological and epistemological perspective. We will look at some of the most common social scientific paradigms that might guide you in starting to think about conducting your research.

The first paradigm we will consider, positivism, is probably the framework that comes to mind for many of you when you think of science.  Positivism is guided by the principles of objectivity, knowability, and deductive logic. Deductive logic is discussed in more detail in the section that follows. The positivist framework operates from the assumption that society can and should be studied empirically and scientifically. Positivism also calls for a value-free sociology, one in which researchers aim to abandon their biases and values in a quest for objective, empirical, and knowable truth.

An Interpretivist paradigm suggests that it is necessary for researchers to understand the differences amongst humans as social actors (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009). The emphasis is on conducting research among people, as opposed to objects. As Saunders et al. (2009, p. 116) observe, the reference to social actors bears noting. They use the analogy of the theatre, where actors interpret, in a specific way, the parts they play. They relate this to the same way in which people interpret their social roles in relationship and how they then give meaning to those roles. Similarly, people interpret the social roles of others in accordance with their own meanings of those roles. Figure 1.3 provides an example of two students, each from a difference academic field of study, and how they might approach their research in their respective fields.

A positivist and an interpretivist approach to research: Focus on student research (adapted from Saunders et al., 2009)

Leah is a PhD student in the natural sciences department (psychology) at her university. She prefers to take a positivist approach to research. Leah is interested in collecting and analyzing the “facts” related to the success of women in private sector businesses. For her, reality is represented by tangible things such as job position, promotions, compensation, etc. These objects have a separate existence from her and for that reason some researchers argue that the collection of such data is less open to bias and is therefore more objective.

Krista is a student in the social sciences department (public health). She prefers to take an interpretivist approach to research. Krista also studies business organizations; however, she is more interested in collecting and analyzing data about “feelings” and “attitudes” of the male public health workers toward their female managers. While some researchers might argue that feelings and attitudes are subjective and not measurable, human feelings can and are frequently measured. In fact, we might question how the data that Leah collects in statistical form are more deserving of authority than the data collected by Krista.

Another predominant paradigm in sociology is social constructionism. While positivists seek “the truth,” the social constructionist framework posits that “truth” is a varying, socially constructed, and ever-changing notion. This is because we, according to this paradigm, create reality ourselves (as opposed to working to discover reality that simply exists) through our interactions and our interpretations of those interactions. Key to the social constructionist perspective is the idea that social context and interaction frame our realities. Researchers operating within this framework take keen interest in how people come to socially agree, or disagree, about what is real and true. We can look at the different meanings that can be associated with different hand gestures as an example. Hand gestures vary across different regions of the world, demonstrating that meaning is constructed socially and collectively.

It would be a mistake to think of the social constructionist perspective as only individualistic. While individuals may construct their own realities, groups—from a small one, such as a married couple, to large ones, such as nations—often agree on notions of what is true and what “is.” The meanings that we construct have power beyond the individual people who create them; therefore, the ways that people work to change such meanings is of as much interest to social constructionists as how they were created in the first place.

A fourth paradigm is known as the critical paradigm. At its core, the critical paradigm is focused on power, inequality, and social change. Unlike the positivist paradigm, the critical paradigm posits that social science can never be truly objective or value-free. This paradigm operates from the perspective that scientific investigation should be conducted with the express goal of seeking social change.

The fifth and final paradigm we will look at is known as postmodernism. Postmodernism is difficult to define, because to do so would actually violate the postmodernist´s perspective that there are no definite terms, boundaries, or absolute truth (Aylesworth, 2015). In other words, a postmodernist would claim there is no objective, knowable truth. A postmodernist would also claim that we can never really know such truth because, in the studying and reporting of others’ truths, researchers put their own truth on the investigation. A postmodernist asks whose power, whose inequality, whose change, whose reality, and whose truth? As you might imagine, the postmodernist paradigm poses quite a challenge for social scientific researchers. How does one study something that may or may not be real or that is only real in your current and unique experience of it? This fascinating question is worth pondering as you begin to think about conducting your own sociological research.

Table 1.1 “Social Scientific Paradigms” summarizes each of the paradigms discussed here.

Research Methods, Data Collection and Ethics Copyright © 2020 by Valerie Sheppard is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Qualitative research paradigm.

I am amazed how often we hear qualitative researchers applying their standards to quantitative research or quantitative researchers applying their standards to qualitative research. Each functions within different assumptions. Finding fault with one approach with the standards of another does little to promote understanding. Each approach should be judges on its theoretical basis.

The Assumptions of Qualitative Designs

• Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process , rather than outcomes or products.
• Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning: ­how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world.
• The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires, or machines.
• Qualitative research involves fieldwork . The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site, or institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting.
• Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures.
• The process of qualitative research is inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions, concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details.

…..Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

….. Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative & quantitative approaches . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Arguments Supporting Qualitative Inquiry

• Human behavior is significantly influenced by the setting in which it occurs; thus one must study that behavior in situations. The physical setting (­e.g., schedules, space, pay, and rewards­) and the internalized notions of norms, traditions, roles, and values are crucial contextual variables. Research must be conducted in the setting where all the contextual variables are operating.
• Past researchers have not been able to derive meaning…from experimental research.
• The research techniques themselves, in experimental research, [can]…affect the findings. The lab, the questionnaire, and so on, [can]…become artifacts. Subjects [can become]…either suspicious and wary, or they [can become]…aware of what the researchers want and try to please them. Additionally, subjects sometimes do not know their feelings, interactions, and behaviors, so they cannot articulate them to respond to a questionnaire.
• One cannot understand human behavior without understanding the framework within which subjects interpret their thoughts, feelings, and actions. Researchers need to understand the framework. In fact, the “objective ” scientist, by coding and standardizing, may destroy valuable data while imposing her world on the subjects.
• Field study research can explore the processes and meanings of events.

…..Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. (1980). Designing qualitative research . Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Predispositions of Quantitative and Qualitative Modes of Inquiry

Although some social science researchers (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Schwandt, 1989) perceive qualitative and quantitative approaches as incompatible, others (Patton, 1990; Reichardt & Cook, 1979) believe that the skilled researcher can successfully combine approaches. The argument usually becomes muddled because one party argues from the underlying philosophical nature of each paradigm, and the other focuses on the apparent compatibility of the research methods, enjoying the rewards of both numbers and words. Because the positivist and the interpretivist paradigms rest on different assumptions about the nature of the world, they require different instruments and procedures to find the type of data desired. This does not mean, however, that the positivist never uses interviews nor that the interpretivist never uses a survey. They may, but such methods are supplementary, not dominant….Different approaches allow us to know and understand different things about the world….Nonetheless, people tend to adhere to the methodology that is most consonant with their socialized worldview. (p. 9)

….. Glesne, C., & Peshkin, A. (1992). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Contrasting Positivist and Naturalist Axioms (Beliefs and Assumptions)

….. Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry . Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

….. Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.

Five popular types of Qualitative Research are

• Ethnography
• Phenomenological
• Grounded Theory

Del Siegle, Ph.D [email protected] www.delsiegle.info