diffusion experiment report

• Applied Mathematics

Lab Report (Guided) for Diffusion

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Diffusion in liquids

In association with Nuffield Foundation

Demonstrate that diffusion takes place in liquids by allowing lead nitrate and potassium iodide to form lead iodide as they diffuse towards each other in this practical

In this experiment, students place colourless crystals of lead nitrate and potassium iodide at opposite sides of a Petri dish of deionised water. As these substances dissolve and diffuse towards each other, students can observe clouds of yellow lead iodide forming, demonstrating that diffusion has taken place.

This practical activity takes around 30 minutes.

• Eye protection
• White tile or piece of white paper
• Lead nitrate (TOXIC, DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT), 1 crystal
• Potassium iodide, 1 crystal
• Deionised water

Greener alternatives

To reduce the use of toxic chemicals in this experiment you can conduct the experiment in microscale, using drops of water on a laminated sheet, find full instructions and video here, and/or use a less toxic salt than lead nitrate, eg sodium carbonate and barium chloride. More information is available from CLEAPSS.

Health, safety and technical notes

• Read our standard health and safety guidance.
• Wear eye protection throughout.
• Lead nitrate, Pb(NO 3 ) 2 (s), (TOXIC, DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT) – see CLEAPSS Hazcard HC057a .
• Potassium iodide, KI(s) – see CLEAPSS Hazcard HC047b .
• Place a Petri dish on a white tile or piece of white paper. Fill it nearly to the top with deionised water.
• Using forceps, place a crystal of lead nitrate at one side of the petri dish and a crystal of potassium iodide at the other.
• Observe as the crystals begin to dissolve and a new compound is formed between them.

Source: Royal Society of Chemistry

As the crystals of potassium iodide and lead nitrate dissolve and diffuse, they will begin to form yellow lead iodide

Teaching notes

The lead nitrate and potassium iodide each dissolve and begin to diffuse through the water. When the lead ions and iodide ions meet they react to form solid yellow lead iodide which precipitates out of solution.

lead nitrate + potassium iodide → lead iodide + potassium nitrate

Pb(aq) + 2I – (aq) → PbI 2 (s)

The precipitate does not form exactly between the two crystals. This is because the lead ion is heavier and diffuses more slowly through the liquid than the iodide ion.

Another experiment – a teacher demonstration providing an example of a solid–solid reaction  – involves the same reaction but in the solid state.

Additional information

This is a resource from the  Practical Chemistry project , developed by the Nuffield Foundation and the Royal Society of Chemistry. This collection of over 200 practical activities demonstrates a wide range of chemical concepts and processes. Each activity contains comprehensive information for teachers and technicians, including full technical notes and step-by-step procedures. Practical Chemistry activities accompany  Practical Physics  and  Practical Biology .

The experiment is also part of the Royal Society of Chemistry’s Continuing Professional Development course:  Chemistry for non-specialists .

© Nuffield Foundation and the Royal Society of Chemistry

• 11-14 years
• 14-16 years
• Practical experiments
• Physical chemistry
• Reactions and synthesis

Specification

• Precipitation is the reaction of two solutions to form an insoluble salt called a precipitate.
• Motion of particles in solids, liquids and gases.
• Diffusion (Graham's law not required).

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Diffusion and Osmosis Lab Report

• 1.1 Diffusion
• 1.2 Osmosis
• 1.3 Cell Size
• 1.4 Demonstration Info (Dialysis)
• 2.1 Procedures for Turnip Core Experiment
• 2.2 Procedures for Extent of Diffusion Experiment
• 2.3 Procedures/Explanation for Demonstration Experiment (Dialysis)
• 3.1.1 Turnip Molarities
• 3.2 Extent of Diffusion (%)
• 3.3 Dialysis demonstration
• 4 Conclusion
• 5 Analysis Questions
• 6 References

Background Info

Diffusion is the thermal movement of solutes from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration in order to achieve equilibrium. Diffusion takes place in our own bodies, an example being in cellular respiration. In this metabolic reaction, oxygen diffuses down the concentration gradient (an area where the compactness of a chemical material increases or reduces) into the cell through a selectively permeable plasma membrane, allowing cellular respiration to take place. Diffusion requires no energy and thereby is a form of passive transport.

The diffusion of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane is osmosis. Osmosis is crucial to our existence, as the process of osmosis maintains homeostasis (relatively stable environment) in the human body and allows the exchange of nutrients between cells (Palaparthi, 2017). The rate of osmosis is affected by temperature, pressure, and size. In temperature, more heat causes more energy. More energy allows the molecules to collide more, which gives away to faster diffusion rates. More pressure causes more molecules to collide. Colliding molecules rub off energy, causing diffusion rates to increase. The larger the cell size, the more energy required for diffusion, thus elongating the time of diffusing, consequently decreasing the rate. The rate of diffusion relative to cell size was tested when three agar cubes of different sizes were measured after being placed in cups of vinegar for 10 minutes. A hypothesis suitable for this experiment is if the surface area of the cell size is larger, the extent of the diffusion in percentages would decrease as it would take a longer time for diffusion to take place within the cell if it has a larger surface area.

When a cell has a higher solute concentration than the environment, water will move into the hypertonic cell through osmosis. When a cell has a lower solute concentration than the environment, water will diffuse out of the hypotonic cell through osmosis in order to achieve equal concentrations, in which the cell would be isotonic. The concept of cell size was demonstrated in measuring the mass of 18 turnip cores before and after being placed in six beakers filled with different sucrose molarities. A hypothesis suitable for this experiment is if the molarity of the sucrose concentrations increases, then the cell's size would initially be increasing less and eventually the cell's size would be decreasing. Water molecules, initially, would be diffusing into the turnip core, but the water would be diffusing out of the turnip core later on as the molarity is increasing.

Demonstration Info (Dialysis)

A dialysis tube of 1% starch solution and glucose was placed into a beaker of water and IKI (Lugol's iodine/Potassium Iodine). When the 30 minutes went by, the dialysis tube was of darkish purple color. The reason for this change in color was because of a chemical reaction where the iodine dissolved into the IKI solution, which consequently interacted with the starch.

The targets of this laboratory experiment were to explore rates of diffusion relative to size and size changes relative to different molarity concentrations.

Methods and Materials

Procedures for turnip core experiment.

In the first experiment testing changes in size relative to different molarity concentrations (the independent variable), 18 turnip cores were picked from a 3-centimeter slice of a turnip by a coring tool. After being plucked out, the turnip cores were measured using a balance. After being measured, the turnip cores were placed in five cups of sucrose with different molarity concentrations (.2M, .4M, .6M, .8M and 1M) and color to keep the turnip cores straight (red, yellow, brown, green and blue) and the control group: a cup of water (dH 2 O), which were all about 200mL (measured in the graduated cylinder before being placed into the beakers). After 10 minutes, the turnip cores were tested for their change in mass (dependent variable). Once the percent of change in mass was calculated, the molarity was determined through the solute potential equation.

Procedures for Extent of Diffusion Experiment

In the second experiment testing rates of diffusion relative to the surface area, 3 agar cubes of different sizes (1cmx1cmx1cm (control to compare with), 2cmx2cmx2cm, and 3cmx3cmx3cm (independent variables)), were carefully formed from one huge agar block. Afterward, the volume, surface area, and the SA:V ratios were measured. The agar cubes were then placed in a solution of white vinegar for 10 minutes and were measured afterward for the extent of diffusion. The extent of diffusion, the dependent variable, was measured by subtracting the volume of the cube that was uncolored from the total volume of the agar cube divided by the total volume of the agar cube. The percentages were recorded for each agar cube.

Procedures/Explanation for Demonstration Experiment (Dialysis)

We performed dialysis tubing, where a bag of 1% starch solution was placed into a cup of water with IKI for 30 minutes. After the 30 minutes, the bag changed into a dark, purple color, indicating that IKI diffused into the bag and the glucose and starch became evident. A chemical interaction occurred between the IKI and the starch, which caused the bag to turn into a black color. This demonstration showcases the scientific process of diffusion in simple terms for us as students, which was taught to us in the classroom. This process of diffusion is played out in our own bodies! Our cells' selectively permeable cell membrane allows different substances to diffuse in and out of the cell in order to maintain homeostasis (isotonic). This is known as osmoregulation.

Change in Mass of Turnip Cores (%)

We had about an even number of positive and negative changes in mass, with the clear, red and brown solutions causing an increase in mass (g) while the green, yellow and blue solutions cause a decrease in mass (g).

Turnip Molarities

The molarities of the concentrations are recorded here in this data table. The molarities of the sucrose concentrations were determined by the solute potential equation. A noticeable trend is seen here, where the higher the molarity, the smaller the cell increases (initially)/the smaller the cell gets (after .4M).

Extent of Diffusion (%)

As shown here, the extent of diffusion is recorded. A trend is evident here: the bigger the cell size, the less diffusion takes place. As the cell size increases, the amount of diffusion that takes place decreases as more energy is required for diffusion to take place, making the process of diffusion longer.

Dialysis demonstration

These two experiments showed to us on a small scale something very complicated on the microlevel. The turnip experiment showed cells' responses to different environments. In our turnip experiment, we were able to find a significant trend: As the molarity increases, the cell size decreased. The cells, initially, were increasing less (dH 2 O --> 7.41%, then .2M --> 3.91%), but the cells did increase in mass as the cells were placed in a hypotonic solution. The sucrose solution surrounding the turnip core diffused inside of the cells in order to achieve equilibrium. Eventually, as the molarity increased, the turnip core began to shrink (.4M --> .79%, then .6M --> -.91%). This is because the water inside the turnip core began to diffuse out of the cell and into the sucrose solution, which decreased the size of the turnip cores because the cell was placed in a hypertonic solution. This experiment demonstrates what occurs inside our bodies, where a cell performs osmoregulation (maintains fluidity balance in the organism, as mentioned in Chen, 2019). In the cell size experiment, a significant trend was found as well: As the surface area decrease, the rate of diffusion increased. In the 1cmx1cmx1cm agar cube, the rate of diffusion was 29.7% faster than the rate of diffusion in the 2cmx2cmx2cm agar cube, in which the rate of diffusion for the 2cmx2cmx2cm agar cube was 25.7% faster than the rate of diffusion for the 3cmx3cmx3cm agar cube. The reason that this trend exists is that as the cell gets bigger, it takes diffusion a lot longer to take place.

Analysis Questions

• The agar cube with the size of 1cmx1cm1xcm had the highest extent of diffusion ([percent]), the agar cube with the size of 2cmx2cmx2cm had the second-highest extent of diffusion ([percent]) and the agar cube with the size of 3cmx3cmx3cm had the lowest extent of diffusion ([percent]).
• A trend is evident in this investigation: The smaller the cell (the surface area to volume ratio), the higher the extent of diffusion was.
• The relationship between the cell volume and extent of diffusion is positive, so the higher the cell volume, the higher the extent of diffusion.
• The relationship between the cell surface area and extent of diffusion is inverse, so the higher the cell surface area, the lower the extent of diffusion.
• If cells were to get really big, then the cell would not be able to perform homeostasis. Homeostasis is crucial for the maintenance of a cell.
• The cell can get small enough to increase the rate of diffusion adequately, but not too small so that the fast rate of diffusion causes the cell to become unstable or damaged. On the other hand, the cell can get big enough to slow down the rate of diffusion when needed, but it cannot get too big or else the cell will not be able to reap the benefits of diffusion.
• Palaparthi, Sarvani. “Role of Homeostasis in Human Physiology: A Review.” Omicsonline , Journal of Medical Physiology & Therapeutics, 2017, www.omicsonline.org/open-access/role-of-homeostasis-in-human-physiology-a-review.pdf.
• Chen, Jiatong (Steven). “Physiology, Osmoregulation and Excretion.” StatPearls [Internet]. , U.S. National Library of Medicine, 30 Apr. 2019, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK541108/.

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Learning Objectives

After completing the lab, the student will be able to:

• Explain or define the term diffusion.
• Explain how different media affect the rate of diffusion.

Activity 1: Pre-Assessment

• What happens when an air freshener is sprayed in a corner? What is the name of the process that causes the molecules to move?
• Do you think that the rate of the air freshener molecules moving would change if the room temperature was warmer or colder? Why or why not?
• Discuss the answers to questions 1 and 2 with the class.

Activity 1: Diffusion

The movement of molecules from a higher concentrated area to a wider and less concentrated area is referred to as diffusion . For example, you can smell the aroma of food flowing through the atmosphere as you walk towards a cafeteria. Molecules collide with each other and are in constant motion because of their kinetic energy. This activity propels molecules to move where there is a less concentrated area. Therefore, the net movement of molecules is always from a tightly concentrated area to a less tightly packed area. Osmosis is the process of water diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane. In body systems, various constituents such as gases, liquids, and solids are dissolved in water when they flow through the cell membrane from a highly concentrated place to a less concentrated area in bodily systems. In a solution, the dissolved substance is called the solute and the substance in which the solute is dissolved is called the solvent.

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area where the molecule is highly concentrated to an area of low concentration, as illustrated in Figure 6.1. The rate of diffusion is dependent upon the temperature of a system, molecular size, and the medium through which diffusion is occurring (i.e., semi-solid, liquid, air). In this activity, we will be observing the diffusion of a dye through a beaker of water and through agar (a gelatinous substance), diffusion as a function of temperature, and diffusion as a function of molecular weight.

Safety Precautions

• Inform your teacher immediately of any broken glassware, as it could cause injuries.
• Clean up any spilled water or other fluids to prevent other people from slipping.
• Be careful with the dye as it can stain your clothes, and it should not be ingested.
• Wash your hands with soap and water after completion of the activity.

For this activity, you will need the following:

• Three 250 mL beakers
• Food coloring
• Agar plates
• Potassium permanganate
• Methylene blue
• Thermometer
• Refrigerator
• Clock or timer

For this activity, you will work in groups of four .

Structured Inquiry

Step 1: Measure 200 mL of room temperature water in a beaker. Put three drops of food coloring into the water. Time how long it takes for the dye to completely diffuse throughout the water. Record the time and describe in your notebook what you observe. Create a data table for your observations.

Step 2: Hypothesize/Predict: Predict what would happen to the rate of diffusion if you had beakers with both very hot and very cold water in them. Add your predictions to the data table you created in step 1.

Step 3: Student-led Planning: Determine how diffusion of the food color would be affected when the water is either very hot or very cold. Use a thermometer and record the temperature for each. Use a timer to measure how long it takes for complete diffusion to occur in all scenarios.

Step 4: Critical Analysis: Create a graph that shows how the diffusion rate is affected because of temperature change. Are the predictions you made in step 2 supported by your data? Why or why not? What methods could you use to improve your results? Discuss with your group and then write your answers in your notebook.

Guided Inquiry

Step 1: Gather four agar plates and the three dyes, provided by your instructor, that differ in molecular size: Congo red (mol. wt. 696.66 g/mol), methylene blue (319.85 g/mol), and potassium permanganate (mol. wt. 158.03).

Step 2: Hypothesize/Predict: How would the rate of diffusion of a molecule through a gel compare to its rate of diffusion through water? How would the rate of diffusion differ between molecules of different molecular sizes? Write your ideas in your notebook.

Step 3: Student-led planning: Use 1 plate for determining how molecular size affects diffusion using the 3 dyes. Determine how best to measure movement of the dye in an agar plate. Be sure to keep the dyes far enough apart so that they do not touch once they start diffusing. Get your instructor’s approval before proceeding with the experiment. Measure the distance that the dye spreads in 20-minute intervals for 1 hour.

Step 4: Examine the effect of temperature on the rate of diffusion for 1 dye of your choosing. With your group, determine 3 temperatures that would be appropriate. Measure the diameter of the dye spread for each. Write the results in your notebook.

Step 5: Critical Analysis: Rank all 3 dyes in terms of diffusion rate. What was the relationship between diffusion rate and molecular size? What is the relationship between temperature and diffusion rate? Discuss your answers with your group and write them in your notebook.

Assessments

• In a system, there is a concentration of molecules. However, on the outside, there is little to no concentration of this particular molecule. In which direction would the molecules be moving more so than the other direction?
• Diffusion is affected by what factors?
• Dye tends to move faster in warmer temperatures. Why is this?

Lab Manual for Biology Part I Copyright © 2022 by LOUIS: The Louisiana Library Network is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Diffusion and Osmosis Lab Report Guidelines

By: Max Malak

To complete this laboratory work, you must recall the material covered on the topic "Osmosis and Diffusion." Using a notebook - synopsis or textbook provided by your science tutor for learning theory. Research reveals common student misconceptions in the fields of diffusion and osmosis. In particular, students find it challenging to understand that cells, like multicellular organisms, live in the environment and must perform all the actions necessary to stay alive. Common student misconceptions also include misconceptions about the difference between cells and molecules and the difference in size between proteins, molecules, and cells.

Main tasks:

Required equipment:, understanding the concepts of diffusion and osmosis, procedure for setting up osmosis experiment, writing style, introduction (6 10 sentences), materials and methods, discussion (5-10 sentences), conclusion (2-3 sentences), how long should a lab report be, common mistakes when conducting research.

You can make a lab report on osmosis and diffusion within a few days. Thanks to this experiment, students will learn about all living organisms' structural units - the cell and its structure and functions. When doing tasks, it will be necessary to move molecules in and out through the cell membrane and interact with the environment.

To understand what osmosis and diffusion, it will be necessary to draw up conceptual maps and study the process of laboratory reporting using real examples and prove how the two concepts are related. To develop an experiment, the student needs to show their knowledge and experience in the study of osmosis and diffusion. Based on the results, the student will understand how semipermeable the membrane is.

Lab Report: Objectives and Required Equipment

All students need to make a basic lab report on diffusion and osmosis, because thanks to it, you will know how different substances move through cell membranes. For example, diffusion occurs across a semipermeable membrane. But also for its process, there must be no barrier, that is, a membrane. When making a diffusion experiment, factors such as temperature, molecular weight, electrical charge, and substance concentration must be considered. In turn, you will see that using this method, water moves according to the same principle - this will be osmosis.

With the help of the teacher's instructions, you will create the best biology lab report. Living plant cells are your primary means of experimentation. With these, you will see the membrane's movement in the dialysis tube, as defined by the semipermeable membrane of cellulose.

• Apply laboratory reporting methods to study the problems of osmosis and diffusion;
• To study the difference between hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic solutions;
• Understand how molecular weight affects the rate of diffusion;
• Record all experimental data in a scientific laboratory report;
• Show the teacher what skills you have gained for yourself while working on the assignment.
• Protective gloves;
• Glasses for work in the laboratory;
• Shoes so as not to get wet.
• Red dye solution;
• Blue dye solution;
• Transparent glasses;
• Diazole tube;
• 250 ml solution;
• Glucose test strips;
• Plastic pipettes;
• 30 ml starch indicator solution;
• 250 ml starch solution.

Osmosis is a selective form of diffusion. Diffusion is based on the random flow of molecules and is much more common in gases, while osmosis base on the molecules' inherent ability in the water. The membrane in osmosis allows certain types of molecules to pass through, limiting the influx of other types.

In both osmosis and diffusion, molecules necessarily flow from an area of higher concentration to a lower one. A practical example of diffusion is when you spray a room freshener in a corner, and the whole room soon filled with scent. A practical example of osmosis is when you start feeling thirsty after eating something salty, as excess salt attracts water to the cells in the body.

Scientifically, both diffusion and osmosis are classified as "passive transport" since no external energy is needed to flow molecules. Osmosis is an important biological concept.

Diffusion and osmosis have an essential role in living organisms to support "homeostasis," "internal balance or equilibrium to regulate various mechanisms through cellular function." Recently, osmosis has also been used as a poetic concept and defines an educational concept in which a child learns by observing, interacting, and simply being in teachers and fellow students' company.

To make a good paper, follow this process:

• Take a small piece of dialysis tubing and cut exactly 10 cm.
• Then soak the dialysis tube in distilled water for a few minutes, but no more than 5.
• Take dental floss and tie it around one end of the dialysis tube.
• Pour 1% starch solution into the tube's space using a pipette, but not completely, leave a place so that you can tie the other end of the tube with dental floss.
• After filling in the required amount of solution, tie the other end of the dialysis tube.
• Fill a 250 ml beaker with distilled water.
• Add Lugol's iodine to distilled water, stir the solution until a uniform yellowish color.
• Place the dialysis tubing bag in the glass.
• The molecular formula of Lugol's solution is I2KI (atomic mass = 127). Starch is made up of long chains of glucose (atomic mass of each glucose = 180). Due to the presence of starch in the solution, the iodine will change color to dark blue. Formulate a hypothesis according to the research points. Explain each hypothesis using evidence. Examples of hypotheses:
• Movement of starch in the solution.
• Movement of iodine in solution.
• How does the color change in the bag after 30 minutes?
• How does the color change in a glass after 30 minutes?
• Place the dialysis bag in a glass and let the experiment run for 30 minutes. Record the colors of both the dialysis bag and the glass.

General Guidelines for Scientific Lab Report Writing

A scientific lab report is one of the types of student's independent work. In its implementation, the already studied theoretical material is used. Often, in preparing such an assignment, the student has many questions regarding its design. Use our writing assignments guide:

• Design the title page. Fill in the upper part of the document with the name of your educational institution. Indicate the type of work in the middle of the sheet. Below, under the type of work, indicate the topic of the work but without quotes. Go a few centimeters down to the right corner of the paper and write the last name, initials, group of your course. After this information, indicate the initials of the teacher who accepts the job. At the very bottom of the page, indicate the city of the educational institution and the year of writing;
• On the next page, describe the purpose of the work. This part is composed of the topic, the tasks that the student considers at work. Do not describe all the work, only the most essential details, by volume this part of the work amounts to several sentences, at most half a page;
• Your next assignment is to write the theoretical part. This section includes information about the work, that is, you need to describe which chapters the text consists of.
• Then describe the methods and tools you used in the experiment. Also, the reader should be told in a brief form of the process of experimenting;
• Describe what results in you achieved during the experiment. This section contains information about all the results you got from the first experiment to the last one. You can draw up this information in the form of computer modeling, certain values of quantities, graphs, tables, diagrams;
• Describe what kind of analysis of the results you conducted. That is, your task is to apply the laws of chemistry, biology to the results obtained and compare.
• Make a conclusion. Your task is to summarize the whole process of work. And also to cue the values of the results in life, obtained experimentally or theoretically, their dependence on the experimental conditions or the chosen calculation model;
• In the penultimate sheet, create applications;
• Your last page should contain a list of used literature, Internet resources.

The formal lab report is executed on writing a standard A4 format on one side of the sheet, stapled in a binder or bound. It is allowed to issue a report on laboratory work in electronic form using Microsoft Office tools. The work's text should be typed with one and a half line spacing in Times New Roman font, size 12. Margins should remain on all four sides of the printed sheet: left - not less than 30 mm, right - not less than 10, bottom - not less than 20, and top - not less than 15 mm.

Suppose according to a special laboratory practice or a cycle of practical exercises. It is required to issue a general report at the end of the semester for the entire work cycle. In that case, separate reports are also drawn up for each cycle's work as they are completed. A final report is drawn up at the end of the semester based on reports for each work. The primary attention should be paid to the analysis of the results obtained in different laboratory works.

It is recommended to arrange laboratory work in a general notebook of 18-24 sheets. At the end of each work, there should be a teacher's mark about the defense. An independent work before the defense of laboratory work should be presented: answers to control questions; options for answering the test on the relevant topic of work.

Style is generally accepted norms. There is an official business style (including diplomatic), journalistic, and other styles that determine information presentation and vocabulary structure. By the way, style can affect how text is presented. The tone is how the letter will sound in the recipient's head the moment it is read.

In your case, this is a scientific work, and a scientific style corresponds to it. Its peculiarity is a generalization, abstractness, and an abundance of special scientific terms. The texts are logical; the language means carefully select. The texts written in a scientific style are not dialogues but monologues. Descriptions and definitions distinguish by high accuracy and consistency.

Repetitions are not terrible here; on the contrary: each concept has a clear name. The result depends on the correct choice of style, the correct presentation of information is essential for readers: they cannot see the author's gestures, eyes, or facial expressions.

The introduction should justify the relevance of the work. The relevance of work is the degree of its importance and a given situation for solving a specific problem, task, or issue. Justification of laboratory work's relevance explains the need to study this topic and conduct research on this issue. The relevance can be expressed in words::

• Of particular importance is the question ...
• The social significance of the topic is determined ...
• In connection with ... the problem has acquired great importance...
• Interest in the problem ... is conditioned by ...

The object and the subject of work are considered for relevance. The object of research is what will be taken for study and research. Usually, the research object's name is contained in answering the question: what is being considered? The subject of research is a particular problem, individual aspects of an item, its properties, and features, which will be investigated in work.

The following describes the purpose of the work, i.e., the desired result, which planned to be achieved due to work, is done. To draw up the work goals, you can use the following scheme: take one of the words such as explore, show, check, study, define, etc. Then add the object of study.

To create this section of the laboratory report, you need to use a vertical list, where you need to indicate all materials and methods used during the experiment. Specify information as specific as possible, without decoration. Indicate the chemicals, equipment, glassware used, indicating the size, quantity, and concentration, only in those points where it is necessary. Your task in the science lab report is to list, not describe the process; you have already done this in the central part.

If you have got the same results that has been published elsewhere, please refer to it and cite it. This will help you avoid repetition, thereby saving you time and limiting the number of words. However, be sure to mention any modifications you may have made to the standard procedure in the source you cite.

While providing detailed information is extremely important, exclude irrelevant information such as the color of the ice bucket or the name of the person who recorded your data. Such information should not be included in the article. Identify information that is relevant to your experiment and its analysis and includes only that.

The lab reports results contain a statement of observations, the results of experiments, measurements, comparisons, counts, and their discussion. The study results must be sufficiently fully so that the reader can trace its stages and assess the validity of the author's conclusions. This is the main section, which aims to prove a working hypothesis by analyzing, synthesizing, and explaining the data.

If necessary, the results are supported by illustrations (tables, graphs, figures), which present the original material or evidence in a collapsed form. The illustrated information mustn't duplicate that already provided in the text.

It is desirable to compare the results presented in the article with the previous works in this area by both the author and other researchers. Such a comparison will additionally reveal the novelty of the work carried out and give it objectivity. The study results should present briefly, but at the same time, contain sufficient information to evaluate the conclusions reached. It should also be justified why this particular data selected for analysis.

The next structural section of a scientific article after the "Research Results," which is unique to it, is "Discussion of Results." It is included in the article's size, which can lead to its exceeding, therefore "Discussion of results" should be as short as possible.

The contents of the "Discussion" section come to life, according to the following plan:

• based on the formulations of the tasks presented in the "Introduction," build a logical chain between their consistent solution and the elimination of the corresponding causes and negative consequences of the actual problem;
• interpret only those thematic indicators that indicate the successful resolution of specific scientific problems and explain how they provide this;
• based on this explanation, logically substantiate the fact of achieving the set scientific goal and eliminating the considered topical problem;
• provide the research results of other scientists, based on which this justification can be interpreted, as part of your author's approach to solving the problem;
• formulate this approach, using the interpretation provided, thus creating a model of the problem studied;
• based on this model, predict new results and, if possible, confirm them with experimental data from other scientists.

The conclusion, along with the introduction, is also an essential part of the work. The conclusion outlines the following aspects:

• conclusions made by the author of the work on the study of the theoretical part of the work;
• results of the analysis of the research subject;
• recommendations for improving the subject of research.

It is good if the conclusion to the chemistry lab report begins with a short introduction to the topic of work. Conclusions should be short, laconic, but generalizing the essence of the analyzed issue. Copying parts of the text from the introduction or the central part in the conclusion is not allowed.

The conclusion can be created as a solid text or as a numbered list. As a rule, the second case writes: "As a result of the work done, the following conclusions were made." A numbered list follows. If a hypothesis was formulated in the introduction, it is necessary to indicate whether it has been confirmed or refuted.

Laboratory works differ in meaning and type of task, and respectively, the volume is different. Most of them take 3-5 sheets, but in some laboratory ones, the volume reaches 5-10 sheets. For individual subjects, laboratory tests are submitted not on paper, but in computer programs; in this case, explanations and input data fit one sheet.

Regardless of the subject, the sections in the laboratory work will be similar in volume if the design takes place on paper and has a classic look:

• Title page.
• Content - 1 sheet.
• Introduction - 6 - 10 sentences.
• The theoretical base is 1-3 sentences.
• List of equipment - 1 sheet.
• The results of experiments or experiments 3-5 sentences.
• Discussions 3-10 sentences.
• Conclusion - 1-3 sentences.
• Answers to security questions 2-3 sentences.
• List of used literature - 1 sheet.

Don’t Forget to Proofread and Edit Your Paper

With the help of online error checking programs, you can perform text editing online. To do this, add text to the window and run the check. Errors are highlighted in red, and the lower window offers an option for an immediate fix. As a result of one check, found errors, tautologies, foreign words shown, and the water level is calculated.

Correction of errors in the text is possible using online tools and stationary programs. Most of the free versions are designed to detect obvious bugs. Some paid versions of online services provide advanced functionality for more thorough checking and automatic editing. No program can replace the work of a real proofreader. Better content analysis is performed only by real specialists.

Therefore, we recommend that you entrust the text's editing to those who are well-versed in this. If you want to listen to the work's assessment or understand whether you wrote the article well, you can entrust the document's reading to your friends.

In the course of laboratory tests, errors are possible. Each determination's final result consists of the actual values and a particular research error, it's an integral part. Evaluation of the result's reliability and clinical assessment requires knowledge of the types of errors during the study. Clinical research errors can be classified as follows:

• mistakes preceding research;
• analytical error (laboratory);
• interpretation error.

Error before doing the research. This error covers a group of factors associated with the patient's preparation for the examination, collecting and storing material before the analysis starts. Factors leading to an error before conducting a study:

• when preparing a patient for research: non-standard time of day, unaccounted diet or medication, etc.;
• when taking material: insufficient asepsis, improperly prepared dishes for the material, etc.;
• during storage of the material: time, temperature, sterility, the need for separate storage of different samples.

Analytical error (laboratory). This error is associated with the course of the study of biological material in the laboratory. There are several types of such errors:

• Systematic error (precision) expresses the difference between the received and the actual values. The source of the systematic error is the peculiarities of the method or the ways of its implementation.
• The random error characterizes the reproducibility (repeatability) of results between parallel samples under given conditions.

Result interpretation error. A single laboratory test results in disease diagnosis or monitoring during treatment can be a source of numerous errors. For example, physiological fluctuations in some parameters are sometimes quite significant and affect the result's clinical interpretation. These changes can be cyclical: hourly, daily, seasonal. In such cases, additional research is required.

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