who wrote the 95 thesis and why

Why Did Martin Luther Post the 95 Theses?

In the little town of Wittenberg, Germany,  on this day, October 31, 1517 , a priest nailed a challenge to debate on the church door. No one may have noticed then, but within the week, copies of his theses would be discussed throughout the surrounding regions; and within a decade, Europe itself was shaken by his simple act. Later generations would mark Martin Luther's nailing of the 95 theses on the church door as the beginning of the Protestant Reformation, but what did Luther think he was doing at the time? To answer this question, we need to understand a little about Luther's own spiritual journey.

Martin Luther

As a young man in Germany at the beginning of the sixteenth century, Luther was studying law at the university. One day he was caught in a storm and was almost killed by lightning. He cried out to St. Anne and promised God he would become a monk. In 1505, Luther entered the Augustinian monastery and in 1507 became a priest. His monastic leaders sent him to Rome in 1510, but Luther was disenchanted with the ritualism and dead faith he found in the papal city. There was nothing in Rome to mend his despairing spirit or settle his restless soul. He seemed so cut off from God, and nowhere could he find a cure for his malady.

Martin Luther was bright, and his superiors soon had him teaching theology at the university. In 1515, he began teaching Paul's epistle to the Romans. Slowly, Paul's words in Romans began to break through the gloom of Luther's soul. Luther wrote

My situation was that, although an impeccable monk, I stood before God as a sinner troubled in conscience, and I had no confidence that my merit would assuage him. Night and day I pondered until I saw the connection between the justice of God and the statement 'the just shall live by faith.' Then I grasped that the justice of God is that righteousness by which through grace and sheer mercy God justifies us through faith. Thereupon I felt myself to be reborn and to have gone through open doors into paradise. The whole of Scripture took on a new meaning...This passage of Paul became to me a gate to heaven.

The more Luther's eyes were opened by his study of Romans, the more he saw the church's corruption in his day. The glorious truth of justification by faith alone had become buried under a mound of greed, corruption, and false teaching. Most galling was the practice of indulgences -- the certificates the church provided for a fee, supposedly to shorten one's stay in Purgatory. The pope was encouraging the sale of indulgences. He planned to use the money to help pay for the building of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.

Johann Tetzel was one of the indulgence sellers in Luther's vicinity. He used little advertising jingles to encourage people to buy his wares: "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs." Once Luther realized the sufficiency of Christ's sacrifice alone for our sins, he found such practices revolting. The more he studied the Scriptures, the more he saw the need to show the church how it had strayed from the truth.

Reason for the 95 Theses

So, on this day, October 31, 1517 , he posted a list of 95 propositions on the church door in Wittenberg. In his day, this was the means of inviting scholars to debate important issues. No one took up Luther's challenge to debate at that time, but once news of his proposals became known, many began to discuss the issue Luther raised that salvation was by faith in Christ's work alone. Luther initially expected the Pope to agree with his position since it was based on Scripture, but in 1520, the Pope issued a decree condemning Luther's views. Luther publicly burned the papal decree. With that act, he also burned his bridges behind him.

Read the Full List of Luther's 95 Theses .

Photo Credit: WikimediaCommons

Bibliography:

• Adapted from an earlier Christian History Institute story.
• Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand. New York: Mentor, 1950.
• Durant, Will. The Reformation. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1957.
• Köstlin, Julius. Life of Luther. New York, C. Scribner's sons, 1884.
• Wells, Amos R. A Treasure of Hymns; Brief biographies of 120 leading hymn- writers and Their best hymns. Boston: W. A. Wilde company, 1945.
• Various encyclopedia articles.

Last updated July 2017.

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This Day In History : October 31

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Martin Luther posts 95 theses

On October 31, 1517, legend has it that the priest and scholar Martin Luther approaches the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany, and nails a piece of paper to it containing the 95 revolutionary opinions that would begin the Protestant Reformation .

In his theses, Luther condemned the excesses and corruption of the Roman Catholic Church, especially the papal practice of asking payment—called “indulgences”—for the forgiveness of sins. At the time, a Dominican priest named Johann Tetzel, commissioned by the Archbishop of Mainz and Pope Leo X, was in the midst of a major fundraising campaign in Germany to finance the renovation of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Though Prince Frederick III the Wise had banned the sale of indulgences in Wittenberg, many church members traveled to purchase them. When they returned, they showed the pardons they had bought to Luther, claiming they no longer had to repent for their sins.

Luther’s frustration with this practice led him to write the 95 Theses, which were quickly snapped up, translated from Latin into German and distributed widely. A copy made its way to Rome, and efforts began to convince Luther to change his tune. He refused to keep silent, however, and in 1521 Pope Leo X formally excommunicated Luther from the Catholic Church. That same year, Luther again refused to recant his writings before the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V of Germany, who issued the famous Edict of Worms declaring Luther an outlaw and a heretic and giving permission for anyone to kill him without consequence. Protected by Prince Frederick, Luther began working on a German translation of the Bible, a task that took 10 years to complete.

The term “Protestant” first appeared in 1529, when Charles V revoked a provision that allowed the ruler of each German state to choose whether they would enforce the Edict of Worms. A number of princes and other supporters of Luther issued a protest, declaring that their allegiance to God trumped their allegiance to the emperor. They became known to their opponents as Protestants; gradually this name came to apply to all who believed the Church should be reformed, even those outside Germany. By the time Luther died, of natural causes, in 1546, his revolutionary beliefs had formed the basis for the Protestant Reformation, which would over the next three centuries revolutionize Western civilization.

Martin Luther Might Not Have Nailed His 95 Theses to the Church Door

Five centuries after his defiant act, scholars question whether it actually happened.

Martin Luther and the 95 Theses

Early Life Martin Luther (1483–1546) was born in Eisleben, Saxony (now Germany), part of the Holy Roman Empire, to parents Hans and Margaretta. Luther’s father was a prosperous businessman, and when Luther was young, his father moved the family of 10 to Mansfeld. At age five, Luther began his education at a local school where […]

How the Renaissance Challenged the Church and Influenced the Reformation

As interest in cultural, intellectual and scientific exploration flourished, support for an all‑powerful church diminished.

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Ninety-five Theses

The Ninety-five Theses ( 95 Theses ) or Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences (Latin: Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum) [1] is a list of propositions for an academic disputation written in 1517 by Martin Luther . The Theses is retrospectively considered to have launched the Protestant Reformation and the birth of Protestantism , despite various proto-Protestant groups having existed previously. It detailed Luther's opposition to what he saw as the Roman Catholic Church 's abuse and corruption by Catholic clergy, who were selling plenary indulgences, which were certificates supposed to reduce the temporal punishment in purgatory for sins committed by the purchasers or their loved ones.

• 1.1 Luther's reaction
• 2.1 Importance of Repentance
• 2.2 Good works
• 2.3 Lay criticism
• 3 Luther's intent
• 4 Distribution and publication
• 8 References
• 9 External links

In the Theses , Luther claimed that the repentance required by Christ in order for sins to be forgiven involves inner spiritual repentance rather than merely external sacramental confession. He argued that indulgences led Christians to avoid true repentance and sorrow for sin, believing that they could forgo it by obtaining an indulgence. These indulgences, according to Luther, discouraged Christians from giving to the poor and performing other acts of mercy, which he attributed to a belief that indulgence certificates were more spiritually valuable. Though Luther claimed that his positions on indulgences accorded with those of Pope Leo X , the Theses challenge a fourteenth-century papal bull stating that the pope could use the treasury of merit and the good deeds of past saints to forgive temporal punishment for sins. The Theses are framed as propositions to be argued in debate rather than necessarily representing Luther's opinions, but Luther later clarified his views in the Explanations of the Disputation Concerning the Value of Indulgences .

Background on Indulgences

Martin Luther , professor of moral theology at the University of Wittenberg, Germany. [2] and town preacher, [3] wrote the Ninety-five Theses against the contemporary practice of the church regarding indulgences . In the Roman Catholic Church , which was practically the only Christian church in Western Europe at the time, indulgences were part of the economy of salvation. In this system, when Christians sin and confess, they are forgiven and no longer stand to receive eternal punishment in hell, but may still be liable to temporal punishment. [4] This punishment could be satisfied by the penitent's performing works of mercy. [5] If the temporal punishment is not satisfied during life, it needs to be satisfied in Purgatory , a place believed by Catholics to exist between Heaven and Hell . By indulgence (which may be understood in the sense of "kindness,") this temporal punishment could be lessened. [4] Under abuses of the system of indulgences, clergy benefited by selling indulgences and the pope gave official sanction in exchange for a fee. [6]

Popes are empowered to grant plenary indulgences, which provide complete satisfaction for any remaining temporal punishment due to sins, and these were purchased on behalf of people believed to be in purgatory. This led to the popular saying, "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs." Theologians at the University of Paris criticized this saying late in the fifteenth century. [4] Earlier critics of indulgences included John Wycliffe , who denied that the pope had jurisdiction over Purgatory. Jan Hus and his followers had advocated a more severe system of penance, in which indulgences were not available. [4] Johannes von Wesel had also attacked indulgences late in the fifteenth century. [7] Political rulers had an interest in controlling indulgences because local economies suffered when the money for indulgences left a given territory. Rulers often sought to receive a portion of the proceeds or prohibited indulgences altogether, as Duke George did in Luther's Electoral Saxony. [4]

In 1515, Pope Leo X granted a plenary indulgence intended to finance the construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Roma. [4] It would apply to almost any sin, including adultery and theft. All other indulgence preaching was to cease for the eight years in which it was offered. Indulgence preachers were given strict instructions on how the indulgence was to be preached, and they were much more laudatory of the indulgence than those of earlier indulgences. Johann Tetzel was commissioned to preach and offer the indulgence in 1517, and his campaign in cities near Wittenberg drew many Wittenbergers to travel to these cities and purchase them, since sales had been prohibited in Wittenberg and other Saxon cities. [4]

Luther's reaction

Luther also had a rather negative experience and idea with the indulgences connected to All Saints' Church, Wittenberg. By venerating the large collection of relics at the church, one could receive an indulgence. He had preached as early as 1514 against the abuse of indulgences and the way they cheapened grace rather than requiring true repentance. [4] Luther became especially concerned in 1517 when his parishioners, returning from purchasing Tetzel's indulgences, claimed that they no longer needed to repent and change their lives in order to be forgiven of sin. After hearing what Tetzel had said about indulgences in his sermons, Luther began to study the issue more carefully, and contacted experts on the subject. He preached about indulgences several times in 1517, explaining that true repentance was better than purchasing an indulgence. He taught that receiving an indulgence presupposed that the penitent had confessed and repented, otherwise it was worthless. A truly repentant sinner would also not seek an indulgence, because they loved God's righteousness and desired the inward punishment of their sin. These sermons seem to have ceased from April to October 1517, presumably while Luther was writing the Ninety-five Theses . [4] He composed a Treatise on Indulgences , apparently in early autumn 1517. It is a cautious and searching examination of the subject. [8] He contacted church leaders on the subject by letter, including his superior Hieronymus Schulz|de, Bishop of Brandenburg, sometime on or before October 31, when he sent the Theses to Archbishop Albert of Brandenburg. [9]

Content of the Theses

Importance of repentance.

The first thesis states, "When our Lord and Master Jesus Christ said, 'Repent,' he willed the entire life of believers to be one of repentance." In the first few theses Luther develops the idea of repentance as the Christian's inner struggle with sin rather than the external system of sacramental confession. [4] Theses 5–7 state that the pope who Luther called the Vicar of Christ on earth can only release people from the punishments he has administered himself or through the church's system of penance, not the guilt of sin. The pope can only announce God's forgiveness of the guilt of sin in his name. [7] In theses 14–29, Luther challenged common beliefs about purgatory. Theses 14–16 discuss the idea that the punishment of purgatory can be likened to the fear and despair felt by dying people. [10] In theses 17–24 he asserts that nothing can be definitively said about the spiritual state of people in purgatory. He denies that the pope has any power over people in purgatory in theses 25 and 26. In theses 27–29, he attacks the idea that as soon as payment is made, the payer's loved one is released from purgatory. He sees it as encouraging sinful greed, and says it is impossible to be certain because only God has ultimate power to forgive punishments in purgatory. [4]

Theses 30–34 deal with the false certainty Luther believed the indulgence preachers offered Christians. Since no one knows whether a person is truly repentant, a letter assuring a person of his forgiveness is dangerous. In theses 35 and 36, he attacks the idea that an indulgence makes repentance unnecessary. This leads to the conclusion that the truly repentant person, who alone may benefit from the indulgence, has already received the only benefit the indulgence provides. According to Luther, truly repentant Christians have already been forgiven of the penalty as well as the guilt of sin. In thesis 37, he states that indulgences are not necessary for Christians to receive all the benefits provided by Christ. Theses 39 and 40 argue that indulgences make true repentance more difficult. True repentance desires God's punishment of sin, but indulgences teach one to avoid punishment, since that is the purpose of purchasing the indulgence. [4]

In theses 41–47 Luther criticizes indulgences on the basis that they discourage works of mercy by those who purchase them. Here he begins to use the phrase, "Christians are to be taught..." to state how he thinks people should be instructed on the value of indulgences. They should be taught that giving to the poor is incomparably more important than buying indulgences, that buying an indulgence rather than giving to the poor invites God's wrath, and that doing good works makes a person better while buying indulgences does not. In theses 48–52 Luther takes the side of the pope, saying that if the pope knew what was being preached in his name he would rather St. Peter's Basilica be burned down than "built up with the skin, flesh, and bones of his sheep." [4] Theses 53–55 complain about the restrictions on preaching while the indulgence was being offered. [7]

In theses 56–66, Martin Luther criticizes the doctrine of the treasury of merit on which the doctrine of indulgences is based. He states that everyday Christians do not understand the doctrine and are being misled. For Luther, the true treasure of the church is the gospel of Jesus Christ. This treasure tends to be hated because it makes "the first last," [4] in the words of Matthew 19:30 and 20:16. [5] Luther uses metaphor and a play on words to describe the treasures of the gospel as nets to catch wealthy people, whereas the treasures of indulgences are nets to catch the wealth of men.

In theses 67–80, Luther discusses further the problems with the way indulgences are being preached, as he had done in the letter to Archbishop Albert. The preachers have been promoting indulgences as the greatest of the graces available from the church, but they actually only promote greed. He points out that bishops have been commanded to offer reverence to indulgence preachers who enter their jurisdiction, but bishops are also charged with protecting their people from preachers who preach contrary to the pope's intention. He then attacks the belief allegedly propagated by the preachers that the indulgence could forgive one who had violated the Virgin Mary . Luther states that indulgences cannot take away the guilt of even the lightest of venial sins. He labels several other alleged statements of the indulgence preachers as blasphemy: that Saint Peter could not have granted a greater indulgence than the current one, and that the indulgence cross with the papal arms is as worthy as the cross of Christ. [4]

Lay criticism

Luther lists several criticisms advanced by laypeople against indulgences in theses 81–91. He presents these as difficult objections his congregants are bringing rather than his own criticisms. How should he answer those who ask why the pope does not simply empty purgatory if it is in his power? What should he say to those who ask why anniversary masses for the dead, which were for the sake of those in purgatory, continued for those who had been redeemed by an indulgence? Luther claimed that it seemed strange to some that pious people in purgatory could be redeemed by living impious people. Luther also mentions the question of why the pope, who is very rich, requires money from poor believers to build St. Peter's Basilica. Luther claims that ignoring these questions risks allowing people to ridicule the pope. He appeals to the pope's financial interest, saying that if the preachers limited their preaching in accordance with Luther's positions on indulgences (which he claimed was also the pope's position), the objections would cease to be relevant. Luther closes the Theses by exhorting Christians to imitate Christ even if it brings pain and suffering. Enduring punishment and entering heaven is preferable to false security. [4]

Luther's intent

The Theses are written as propositions to be argued in a formal academic disputation, though there is no evidence that such an event ever took place. [9] In the heading of the Theses , Luther invited interested scholars from other cities to participate. Holding such a debate was a privilege Luther held as a doctor, and it was not an unusual form of academic inquiry. [4] Luther prepared twenty sets of theses for disputation at Wittenberg between 1516 and 1521. [11] Andreas Karlstadt had written a set of such theses in April 1517, and these were more radical in theological terms than Luther's. He posted them on the door of All Saints' Church, as Luther was alleged to have done with the Ninety-five Theses . Karlstadt posted his theses at a time when the relics of the church were placed on display, and this may have been considered a provocative gesture. Similarly, Luther posted the Ninety-five Theses on the eve of All Saints' Day, the most important day of the year for the display of relics at All Saints' Church. [12]

Luther's theses were intended to begin a debate among academics, not a popular revolution, [11] but there are indications that he saw his action as prophetic and significant. Around this time, he began using the name "Luther" and sometimes "Eleutherius", Greek for "free", rather than "Luder". This seems to refer to his being free from the scholastic theology which he had argued against earlier that year. [13] Luther later claimed not to have desired the Theses to be widely distributed. Elizabeth Eisenstein argued that his purported surprise at their success may have involved self-deception, while Hans Hillerbrand argued that Luther certainly intended to instigate a large controversy. [14] At times, Luther seems to use the academic nature of the Theses as cover for attacking established beliefs while allowing him to deny that he intended to attack church teaching. Since writing a set of theses for a disputation does not necessarily commit the author to those views, Luther could deny that he held the most incendiary ideas in the Theses . [14]

Distribution and publication

On October 31, 1517, Luther sent a letter to the Archbishop of Mainz, Albert of Brandenburg, under whose authority the indulgences were sold. In the letter, Luther addresses the archbishop from a loyal desire to alert him to the pastoral problems created by the indulgence sermons. He assumes that Albert is unaware of what is preached under his authority, and speaks from concern that the people are being led away from the gospel, and concern that the preaching of indulgences may bring shame to Albert's name. Luther does not condemn indulgences or the doctrine regarding them, nor even the sermons about them, as he had not seen them firsthand. Instead he expresses his concern about the misunderstandings of the people about indulgences fostered by the preaching, such as the belief that any sin could be forgiven by indulgences or that the guilt as well as the punishment for sin could be forgiven by an indulgence. In a postscript, Luther wrote that Albert could find some theses on the matter enclosed with his letter, so that he could contrast the doctrine of indulgences with the preachers who spoke so confidently of the benefits of indulgences. [4]

It was customary when proposing a disputation to have the theses printed by the university press and publicly posted. [15] No copies of a Wittenberg printing of the Ninety-five Theses have survived, but this is not surprising as Luther was not famous and the importance of the document was not recognized. [15] [16] In Wittenberg, the university statutes demand that theses be posted on every church door in the city, but Philip Melanchthon, who first mentioned the posting of the Theses , only mentioned the door of All Saints' Church. [17] [10] Melanchthon also claimed that Luther posted the Theses on October 31, but this conflicts with several of Luther's statements about the course of events, and Luther always claimed that he brought his objections through proper channels rather than inciting a public controversy. [18] It is possible that while Luther later saw the October 31 letter to Albert as the beginning of the Reformation, he did not post the Theses to the church door until mid-November, but he may not have posted them on the door at all. [4] In any case the Theses were well known among the Wittenberg intellectual elite soon after Luther sent them to Albert. [15]

The Theses were copied and distributed to interested parties soon after Luther sent the letter to Archbishop Albert. [11] The Latin Theses were printed in a four-page pamphlet in Basel, and as placards in Leipzig and Nuremberg. [14] In all, several hundred copies of the Latin Theses were printed in Germany in 1517. Kaspar Nützel|de in Nuremberg translated them into German later that year. Copies of this translation were sent to several interested parties across Germany, [11] but it was not necessarily printed. [9] [19]

Albert seems to have received Luther's letter with the Theses around the end of November. He requested the opinion of theologians at the University of Mainz and conferred with his advisers. His advisers recommended that Luther be prohibited from preaching against indulgences in accordance with the indulgence bull, which Albert requested from the Roman Curia. In Rome, Luther was immediately perceived as a threat. [15] In February 1518, Pope Leo asked the head of the Augustinian Hermits, Luther's religious order, to convince him to stop spreading his ideas about indulgences. Sylvester Mazzolini was also appointed to write an opinion which would be used in the trial against him. Mazzolini wrote A Dialogue against Martin Luther's Presumptuous Theses concerning the Power of the Pope , which focused on Luther's questioning of the pope's authority rather than his complaints about indulgence preaching. [11] Luther received a summons to Rome in August 1518. [4] He responded with Explanations of the Disputation Concerning the Value of Indulgences , in which he attempted to clear himself of the charge that he was attacking the pope. [11] As he set down his views more extensively, Luther seems to have recognized that the implications of his beliefs set him further from official teaching than he initially understood. He later said he might not have begun the controversy had he known where it would lead. [18] The Explanations have been called Luther's first Reformation work. [20]

Johann Tetzel responded to the Theses by calling for Luther to be burnt for heresy and having theologian Konrad Wimpina write 106 theses against Luther's work. Tetzel defended these in a disputation before the University of Frankfurt on the Oder in January 1518. [4] 800 copies of the printed disputation were sent to be sold in Wittenberg, but students of the university seized them from the bookseller and burned them. Luther became increasingly fearful that the situation was out of hand and that he was in danger. To placate his opponents, he published a Sermon on Indulgences and Grace , which did not challenge the pope's authority. This pamphlet, written in German, was very short and easy for laypeople to understand. [9] Luther's first widely successful work, it was reprinted twenty times. Tetzel responded with a point-by-point refutation, citing heavily from the Bible and important theologians. [11] [22] His pamphlet was not nearly as popular as Luther's. Luther's reply to Tetzel's pamphlet, on the other hand, was another publishing success for Luther. [15] [23] [4]

Another prominent opponent of the Theses was Johann Eck, Luther's friend and a theologian at the University of Ingolstadt. Eck wrote a refutation, intended for the Bishop of Eichstätt, entitled the Obelisks . This was in reference to the obelisks used to mark heretical passages in texts in the Middle Ages. It was a harsh and unexpected personal attack, charging Luther with heresy and stupidity. Luther responded privately with the Asterisks , titled after the asterisk marks then used to highlight important texts. Luther's response was angry and he expressed the opinion that Eck did not understand the matter about which he wrote. [4] The dispute between Luther and Eck would become public in the 1519 Leipzig Debate. [11]

Luther was summoned by authority of the pope to defend himself against charges of heresy before Thomas Cajetan at Augsburg in October 1518. Cajetan did not allow Luther to argue with him over his alleged heresies, but he did identify two points of controversy. The first was against the 58th thesis, which stated that the pope could not use the treasury of merit to forgive temporal punishment of sin. [24] . This contradicted the papal bull Unigenitus promulgated by Clement VI in 1343. [4] The second point was whether one could be assured that they had been forgiven when their sin had been absolved by a priest. Luther's Explanations on thesis seven asserted that one could based on God's promise, but Cajetan argued that the humble Christian should never presume to be certain of their standing before God. Luther refused to recant and requested that the case be reviewed by university theologians. This request was denied, so Luther appealed to the pope before leaving Augsburg. [24] Luther was finally excommunicated in 1521 after he burned the papal bull threatening him to recant or face excommunication. [4]

Luther sent the Theses enclosed with a letter to Albert of Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz, on October 31, 1517. Luther may have also posted the Ninety-five Theses on the door of All Saints' Church and other churches in Wittenberg—in accordance with University custom —on October 31 or in mid-November. The Theses were quickly reprinted and translated, and distributed throughout Germany and Europe. They initiated a pamphlet war with the indulgence preacher Johann Tetzel, which spread Luther's fame even further. Luther's ecclesiastical superiors had him tried for heresy , which culminated in his excommunication in 1521. Though the Theses were the start of the Reformation, Luther did not consider indulgences to be as important as other theological matters which would divide the church, such as justification by faith alone and the bondage of the will. His breakthrough on these issues would come later, and he did not see the writing of the Theses as the point at which his beliefs diverged from those of the Roman Catholic Church .

The indulgence controversy set off by the Theses helped instigate the Reformation , a schism in the Roman Catholic Church which initiated profound and lasting social and political change in Europe. [25] Luther later stated that the issue of indulgences was insignificant relative to controversies which he would enter into later, such as his debate with Erasmus over the bondage of the will, [12] nor did he see the controversy as important to his intellectual breakthrough regarding the gospel. Luther later wrote that at the time he wrote the Theses he remained a "papist," and he did not seem to think the Theses represented a break with established Roman Catholic doctrine. [18] But it was out of the indulgences controversy that the movement which would be called the Reformation was initaited, and the controversy propelled Luther to the leadership position he would hold in that movement. [12] The Theses also made evident that Luther believed the church was not preaching properly and that this put the laity in serious danger. Further, the Theses contradicted the decree of Pope Clement VI, in 1343, that indulgences are the treasury of the church. This disregard for papal authority presaged later conflicts. [5]

October 31, 1517, the day Luther sent the Theses to Albert, was commemorated as the beginning of the Reformation as early as 1527, when Luther and his friends raised a glass of beer to commemorate the "trampling out of indulgences." [21] The posting of the Theses was established in the historiography of the Reformation as the beginning of the movement by Philip Melanchthon in his 1548 Historia de vita et actis Lutheri . During the 1617 Reformation Jubilee, the centenary of October 31 was celebrated by a procession to the Wittenberg Church where Luther was believed to have posted the Theses . An engraving was made showing Luther writing the Theses on the door of the church with a gigantic quill. The quill penetrates the head of a lion symbolizing Pope Leo X. [14] In 1668, October 31 was made Reformation Day, an annual holiday in Electoral Saxony, which spread to other Lutheran lands. [21] October 31, 2017, the 500th Anniversary of Reformation Day, was celebrated with a national public holiday throughout Germany.

• ↑ The title comes from the 1516 Basel pamphlet printing. The first printings of the Theses use an incipit rather than a title which summarizes the content. The 1517 Nuremberg placard edition opens Amore et studio elucidande veritatis: hec subscripta disputabuntur Wittenberge. Presidente R.P. Martino Lutther ... Quare petit: vt qui non possunt verbis presentes nobiscum disceptare: agant id literis absentes. Luther usually called them " meine Propositiones " (my propositions). Brian Cummings, The Literary Culture of the Reformation: Grammar and Grace (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0198187356 ), 32.
• ↑ At the time, Luther was the youngest member of the theological faculty at the university, which was still known for its medieval theology. Luther was later promoted to take over the chair of Biblical studies of the theological staff of Wittenberg as the successor of Johann von Staupitz. Martin Luther and Kurt Aland, Martin Luther's 95 Theses: With the Pertinent Documents from the History of the Reformation (Saint Louis, Mo: Concordia Publishing House, 1967, ISBN 978-0758608444 ), 1.
• ↑ Helmar Junghans, "Luther's Wittenberg," in Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther , ed. Donald K. McKim (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0521816489 ), 23, 25.
• ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 Martin Brecht, Sein Weg zur Reformation 1483–1521 (Martin Luther: His Road to Reformation 1483–1521) trans. James L. Schaff (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1985, ISBN 978-0800628130 ), 117-118, 169-212, 242, 253, 420, 427.
• ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Timothy J. Wengert, Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses: With Introduction, Commentary, and Study Guide (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2015, ISBN 978-1506401942 ), xvi, xliii-xliv, 22. Retrieved January 14, 2024.
• ↑ Mark A. Noll, In the Beginning Was the Word: The Bible in American Public Life, 1492–1783 (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2015, ISBN 978-0190263980 ), 31.
• ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Paul R. Waibel, Martin Luther: A Brief Introduction to His Life and Works (Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson, 2005, ISBN 978-0882952314 ), 43-47. Retrieved January 14, 2024.
• ↑ Jared Wicks, "Martin Luther's Treatise on Indulgences," Theological Studies 28(3) (1967): 489. Retrieved January 14, 2024.
• ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Volker Leppin, and Timothy J. Wengert, "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses ," Lutheran Quarterly (29) (2015): 387-389. Returned January 14, 2024.
• ↑ 10.0 10.1 Timothy J. Wengert, "[The 95 Theses or] Disputation for Clarifying the Power of Indulgences, 1517," in The Annotated Luther, Volume 1: The Roots of Reform , edited by Timothy J. Wengert (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2015, ISBN 978-1451465358 ), 23, 36. Retrieved January 14, 2024.
• ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 Scott H. Hendrix, Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015, ISBN 978-0300166699 ), 59-66.
• ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Alister E. McGrath, Luther's Theology of the Cross: Martin Luther's Theological Breakthrough (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011, ISBN 978-1119995999 ), 23–26.
• ↑ Bernhard Lohse, Luthers Theologie in ihrer historischen Entwicklung und in ihrem systematischen Zusammenhang (Martin Luther's Theology: Its Historical and Systematic Development), trans. Roy A. Harrisville (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1999, ISBN 978-0800630911 ), 101. Retrieved January 15, 2024.
• ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Brian Cummings, The Literary Culture of the Reformation: Grammar and Grace (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0198187356 ), 15-16, 32, 35.
• ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Andrew Pettegree, Brand Luther (New York, NY: Penguin, 2015, ISBN 978-1594204968 ), 97, 128-129, 144-145, 152.
• ↑ The Wittenberg printer was Johann Rhau-Grunenberg. A Rhau-Grunenberg printing of Luther's "Disputation Against Scholastic Theology", published just eight weeks before the Ninety-five Theses , was discovered in 1983. Its form is very similar to that of the Nuremberg printing of the Ninety-five Theses . This is evidence for a Rhau-Grunenberg printing of the Ninety-five Theses , as the Nuremberg printing may be a copy of the Wittenberg printing.
• ↑ Georg Rörer, Luther's scribe, claimed in a note that Luther posted the theses to every church door.
• ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Richard Marius, Martin Luther: The Christian Between God and Death (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1999, ISBN 978-0674550902 ), 138, 145.
• ↑ No copies of the 1517 German translation survive. Heiko A. Oberman, Luther: Mensch zwischen Gott und Teufel (Luther: Man Between God and the Devil), trans. Eileen Walliser-Schwarzbart (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0300103137 ), 191.
• ↑ Bernhard Lohse, Martin Luther—Eine Einführung in sein Leben und sein Werk (Martin Luther: An Introduction to His Life and Work), trans. Robert C. Schultz (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1986, ISBN 978-0800607647 ), 125.
• ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Barry Stephenson, Performing the Reformation: Religious Festivals in Contemporary Wittenberg (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0199732753 ), 17, 39-40.
• ↑ Tetzel's pamphlet is titled Rebuttal Against a Presumptuous Sermon of Twenty Erroneous Articles .
• ↑ Luther's reply to Tetzel's Rebuttal is titled Concerning the Freedom of the Sermon on Papal Indulgences and Grace . Luther intends to free the Sermon from Tetzel's insults.
• ↑ 24.0 24.1 Suzanne Hequet, "The Proceedings at Augsburg, 1518," in The Annotated Luther, Volume 1: The Roots of Reform . ed. Timothy J. Wengert (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2015, ISBN 978-1451465358 ), 124-125
• ↑ C. Scott Dixon, The Reformation in Germany (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002, ISBN 978-0631202523 ), 23.

References ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Brecht, Martin. Sein Weg zur Reformation 1483–1521 . (Martin Luther: His Road to Reformation 1483–1521) translated by James L. Schaff. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1985 (original 1981). ISBN 978-0800628130
• Cummings, Brian. The Literary Culture of the Reformation: Grammar and Grace . Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0198187356
• Dixon, C. Scott. The Reformation in Germany . Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002. ISBN 978-0631202523
• Hendrix, Scott H. Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015. ISBN 978-0300166699
• Hequet, Suzanne. "The Proceedings at Augsburg, 1518," in The Annotated Luther, Volume 1: The Roots of Reform . edited by Timothy J. Wengert. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2015. ISBN 978-1451465358
• Junghans, Helmar. "Luther's Wittenberg," in Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther , edited by Donald K. McKim. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0521816489
• Lohse, Bernhard. Luthers Theologie in ihrer historischen Entwicklung und in ihrem systematischen Zusammenhang (Martin Luther's Theology: Its Historical and Systematic Development) translated by Roy A. Harrisville. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1999 (original 1995). ISBN 978-0800630911
• Lohse, Bernhard. Martin Luther—Eine Einführung in sein Leben und sein Werk . (Martin Luther: An Introduction to His Life and Work), translated by Robert C. Schultz. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1986 (original 1980). ISBN 978-0800607647
• Luther, Martin, and Kurt Aland. Martin Luther's 95 Theses: With the Pertinent Documents from the History of the Reformation . Saint Louis, Mo: Concordia Publishing House, 1967. ISBN 978-0758608444
• Marius, Richard. Martin Luther: The Christian Between God and Death . Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1999. ISBN 978-0674550902
• McGrath, Alister E. Luther's Theology of the Cross: Martin Luther's Theological Breakthrough . Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. ISBN 978-1119995999
• Noll, Mark A. In the Beginning Was the Word: The Bible in American Public Life, 1492–1783 . New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2015. ISBN 978-0190263980
• Oberman, Heiko A. Luther: Mensch zwischen Gott und Teufel , (Luther: Man Between God and the Devil), translated by Eileen Walliser-Schwarzbart. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006 (original 1982). ISBN 978-0300103137
• Pettegree, Andrew. Brand Luther . New York, NY: Penguin, 2015. ISBN 978-1594204968
• Stephenson, Barry. Performing the Reformation: Religious Festivals in Contemporary Wittenberg . New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0199732753
• Waibel, Paul R. Martin Luther: A Brief Introduction to His Life and Works . Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson, 2005. ISBN 978-0882952314
• Wengert, Timothy J. Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses: With Introduction, Commentary, and Study Guide . Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2015. ISBN 978-1506401942
• Wengert, Timothy J. "[The 95 Theses or] Disputation for Clarifying the Power of Indulgences, 1517," in The Annotated Luther, Volume 1: The Roots of Reform . edited by Timothy J. Wengert. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2015. ISBN 978-1451465358

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• Ninety-five Theses Modern English translation with commentary and notes
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