importance of psychology essay

How Psychology Has Changed Our Minds

H ow does the mind work? How can we explain consciousness, development, memory, language, rationality, emotions, racism, kindness, and hatred—the most important and intimate aspects of ourselves?

Solving these mysteries is the business of experimental psychology, the field I’ve devoted my life to. But not everyone is satisfied with how we’re doing our job. Some feel that psychology isn’t scientific enough in its approach and believe that the real answers are going to come from studies of the brain. Out with psychology; in with neuroscience! Others reject a scientific approach altogether and seek answers from mystics, self-help celebrities, and internet gurus.

This skepticism is understandable. Our field is going through a replication crisis , as many of our best-known findings have failed to hold up. And, like any field, progress in psychology can be slow, and the answers we give are often tentative and qualified.

But I am bullish about psychology. The field has come up with some striking findings that shatter common-sense conceptions about how the mind works. I’ll tell you about four of them.

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1. babies know more than we could have imagined.

The idea that we start off with empty heads was an accepted view by many scholars. In 1890, William James described the mental life of a baby as “a blooming, buzzing confusion.” A century earlier, Jean-Jacques Rousseau made this point in harsher terms, saying that if a child were born in an adult body, “such a child-man would be a perfect idiot”

Maybe you believe this too—babies sure don’t seem very smart. But psychologists have employed clever methods to capitalize on the few things babies are good at, such as sucking on a pacifier and moving their eyes. This might not sound like much, but in the hands of clever researchers, these behaviours can reveal the secrets of the infant soul.

We have discovered an inborn system for reasoning about objects, one present in babies as young as researchers are able to test (and also present in species other than humans, such as newborn baby chicks). Babies know, for instance, that objects that go out of sight continue to exist.

We know that, early on, babies also have some understanding of people. Imagine a table with two different objects on it, and a hand reaching for one of them. Then the objects switch places. Adults know that hands are attached to people, and people have goals, and a reasonable goal for a person is to reach for a particular object, not to go to a specific location. Six-month-olds have the same expectation. They are even capable of rudimentary moral judgments. If you show them a character who helps someone and another character who gets in that person’s way, six-month-olds prefer the helper. When you look into the big eyes of a baby, there’s someone smart looking back.

2. Memory is not to be trusted

Some people believe that we make perfect recordings of the world.  Any memory can be recovered if we work hard enough at it, whether through self-reflection, hypnotic regression, or probing by a patient psychiatrist.

None of this is true. Memory is fuzzy and vague; much of what we experience never gets stored in our brains, and much of what is stored gets distorted over time. When we try to remember something, it’s not like a computer retrieving information; it’s more of a storytelling process—an on-the-fly reconstruction.

One way we know this is through studies where psychologists implant false memories in their subjects. Sometimes this is subtle—showing people a scene and later asking them “did you see children getting on the school bus?” makes them more likely, later, to remember a school bus, even if it wasn’t there. Sometimes it’s more heavy-duty. In one study, psychologists asked college students’ family members for information about events from their childhoods and interviewed students about their memories. The twist is that for each interview, one event—being lost in a shopping mall, nearly drowning, spilling punch on a bride’s parents during a wedding, being attacked by a vicious animal—was entirely fabricated by the researchers. Despite this, many of the subjects came to remember these false events as actually occurring.

This research has led to a revolution in the law. Memory research has helped us appreciate that police interrogations that are intended to retrieve memories can instead shape and create them. On a more personal level, it’s worth knowing—maybe when you’re arguing with your partner!—that you can be perfectly confident in a memory and yet entirely mistaken about it.

3. Consciousness is surprisingly limited

When you close your eyes and open them again, would you notice if everything changed?

One of the great discoveries of cognitive psychology finds that only a small fraction of sensory experience makes its way in; everything else is ignored and lost forever. In one famous study, reported in a paper titled “Gorillas in Our Midst,” subjects are shown a video in which people in white shirts and black shirts are standing in a hallway passing basketballs back and forth. The subjects’ task is to focus on the white shirts and count the passes they make. People don’t find this hard, but it does take all their attention. Here’s the twist: In the middle of the video someone dressed as a gorilla walks onto the scene, stops in the middle and pounds his chest, then walks off. About half of the subjects don’t see this at all, though the presence of the gorilla is screamingly obvious for anyone who is not told to focus on the passing of the basketballs.

We tend to be ignorant of these limitations. It feels like we are conscious of the world, not just a small sliver of it. It feels like we can attend to multiple things at the same time, rather than being forced to move our attention back and forth. Our limitations are harmless enough if we are listening to a podcast while mowing the lawn. But they can be fatal in cases where something needs our full attention, such as driving. Talking on the phone, even using a hands-free device, slows our reaction time on the road to an extent that is roughly the same as being legally intoxicated.

4. Insights from the new science of happiness

A few decades ago, a group of psychologists worried that there has been too much focus on the negative. We haven’t done enough research into what goes into a pleasant and meaningful and satisfying life. A new movement, known as positive psychology, emerged to change all this. And now we have a lot of data, some from studies of millions of people, that help us appreciate the conditions for human flourishing.

Some of the findings are common sense. Money does lead to happiness, both at the level of individuals (richer people are happier) and countries (citizens of richer countries are happier)—though there are diminishing returns once the numbers get high enough. Social connections are even more important; one study, published in the journal Science , found that being lonely has a worse effect on health than obesity and smoking.

Other findings are more surprising. Research into aging and happiness find that for many people, the 50s are the saddest period of their lives, and then happiness starts to rise—for many, the eighties are the happiest times of their lives.  Who would have thought?

Happiness researchers have also discovered a paradox. There is a strong relationship between thinking a lot about happiness and … being sad. The moral here is: don’t spend too much time pouring over the happiness research!

There are so many other findings that could have made the list, and there will be more in the future. I’m most excited by debates over how well deep learning (how ChatGPT and other AIs work) can work as a model for human thinking, as well in recent developments in clinical psychology, including trials of mind-altering drugs such as ketamine and psylocibin, as treatments for depression and anxiety. These are exciting times to be a psychologist.

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Why Is It Important to Study Psychology?

Psychology sheds light on human behavior and helps us understand why we act the way we do. The field offers insights into our human experiences, helps us connect with others, and can mean the difference between a life well-lived and a life of challenges.

A psychology degree can lead to a rewarding career in social science. Let's explore why psychology is an essential part of your studies and how you can transition to a career if you find out it's right for you.

What is psychology and why is psychology important?

Psychology is the study of human behavior. It has roots in healthcare and the scientific method, helping uncover the processes of the mind. Through research and observation, psychologists can help answer questions about the brain's mysteries and improve mental health standards for communities.

Psychology studies offer new perspectives on human development, and it's not all about the physical process. Students in the field explore:

• How the physical development of the body and brain work together.
• The role of environmental influences on human development and behavior.
• Causes and treatments of mental illness

The field is important because it offers answers to the question, “What makes humans tick?” Studying psychology can mean walking away with a greater understanding of how humans handle everyday life.

What are the fields of psychology?

Psychology studies fall into a few different subcategories:

• Counseling psychology: A focus on the developmental, interpersonal, and personal functions across the lifespan.
• Clinical psychology: Integration of psychology and medical treatment methods for mental health issues.
• Educational psychology: Integration of psychology and the learning process.
• Forensic psychology: Supports the judicial system and criminal recovery.
• Social psychology: The application of psychology to understand how humans perceive themselves within larger society.
• Developmental psychology: A focus on the development of human beings and human behavior across the lifespan.
• Quantitative psychology: The integration of psychology with quantitative research methods.
• Organizational psychology: The study of human behavior in the workplace, including critical thinking and decision making as an organization.

While not an exhaustive list, these subfields offer insight into different aspects of the psychology discipline. Students can align their unique interests with a particular specialization.

Why study psychology?

There is so much we don't know about human behavior and the brain that powers it. The more we understand human brains, the more we can unlock the inner lives of other animals and even plant life. 

Psychology is also helping in other fields as well—for instance, artificial intelligence and cognitive science . Learning about how brains process data, respond to stimuli, and take in information can help us build efficient machines with human-like characteristics. We may even crack the final barrier between humans and machines.

Some psychology specializations offer insight into human well-being in communities:

• Social work
• Workplace wellness
• Individual mental health

Many specializations help individual psychological health via medical interventions, counseling , and coaching . Other specializations involve engaging in psychological research to answer questions and find solutions to challenges.

Why do so many students study psychology?

People love to learn about themselves and the people around them. Many students are drawn to psychology because of the opportunity to learn about others while discovering more about their own lives. The field’s many subfields and specializations are also designed to match a student’s unique strengths and interests.

With the right education and training, whether that means an online certification or a graduate degree, students become equipped with the knowledge and skills to:

• Help themselves and others overcome challenges in mental processes.
• Aid in psychology research.
• Make a difference in everyday life.

Is psychology right for me?

Psychology may be a fascinating subject, but depending on your goals, many positions require graduate degrees, certifications, and even some time in residency:

• Clinical psychologists, for example, must complete a doctorate level degree or a medical degree to practice.
• A counseling psychologist may need a master's degree to find a suitable position.
• A researcher may need a bachelor’s degree to contribute to the field.

If higher education doesn't intimidate you, psychology may be a suitable career. In addition, a love of continuous learning helps because psychologists have professional development requirements to maintain certification. 

There are other options for students who don't want to complete graduate work to practice in psychology. Subject matter expertise or an undergraduate degree in psychology can help students:

• Develop communication and empathy skills needed in a variety of fields ranging from education to marketing.
• Engage in research, applying data science or computer programming principles to create data-driven research tools.

If you want to dip your toes and figure out whether you enjoy psychology, consider taking free online psychology courses .

Where can I learn psychology online?

Psychology is a common online major for undergraduate students. They may also have online options for graduate degrees in the field.

edX offers online psychology courses . Learners can explore different specializations in the field of psychology for free or take official credit. Courses take place online, and students can begin their studies for free or pay a fee to earn verified certificates. 

Other options include XSeries pathways and a MicroMasters program in Organizational Psychology. These are designed and delivered in partnership with leaders in the field of psychology and education.

Explore careers in psychology with edX

Students can learn to be better communicators, understand human behavior , and build foundational knowledge of their own brains. The psychology field offers research opportunities and the chance to grow as knowledge improves. It's an opportunity to help others and contribute to critical research . There's no better way to start exploring psychology than with the edX platform.

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Psychology in Everyday Life: Importance, Applications & Examples

Psychology in Everyday Life : Contrary to the popular notion that psychology is utilised only by students of the discipline or professionals in the field, the science of behaviour is an intricate component of our daily lives. Psychology, as a discipline, is used to understand various other domains of human society because human behaviour is the central aspect of all human activities. At the same time, the mundane activities performed by human beings every day are not free from psychological principles and applications because the human mind occupies the central position. It is the driving force behind all of our motivations and desires and can thus be utilised to improve how we navigate through daily activities. Human cognition, emotion and communication – the machinery of the human mind – define how we conduct ourselves in our physical and social environments.

The Importance of Psychology in our Everyday Lives

Human memory can be defined as a set of processes that determine how we acquire, store, retain and retrieve information as and when our environment demands it. It follows a three-step process of encoding (how sensory information from the environment is processed by our mind so that it can be stored), storage (refers to the volume and duration of storage of information), and retrieval (reproduction of the data stored when required).

Communication

Communication is a term used to define the exchange of information between two or more individuals. The process of communicating is primarily perceived as a verbal process that involves either written communication or speech. However, meaningful communication makes use of several non-verbal cues such as facial expressions, body language, tone of voice, etc., that convey information more precisely. Understanding these non-verbal cues accurately is key to effective communication because they relay information about the emotional states of individuals. For example, constant fidgeting and restlessness may indicate nervousness or anxiety; harsh vocal tones suggest anger or frustration, frowns on faces indicate unhappiness. Being able to comprehend these cues makes us better communicators. This knowledge also allows us to train ourselves to use non-verbal cues such as tone and body language more mindfully. For example, certain physical stances convey confidence and surety, and learning to take a polite tone may help us in several social situations. Understanding and conveying social cues accurately is exceptionally pertinent in any social and professional environment and must therefore be emphasised.  

Psychologists understand motivation as a force (psychological, biological or social) that directs human behaviour towards achieving perceived needs or desires. As a study of human behaviour, psychology prescribes several methods that allow individuals to stay motivated and cope with feeling demotivated. One of the critical findings of psychology, in the context of motivation, is that rewards guide human action. The study of motivation concludes that intrinsic motivation produces a more potent and longer-lasting drive to achieve our goals instead of extrinsic motivation, wherein our drive to achieve something ceases to exist once the external reward is removed. Learning how internal and external rewards impact our motivation will allow us to understand the determinants of our drive to complete tasks. Additionally, psychological findings teach us that repetitive tasks breed tardiness which is why we must explore new tasks and novel ways of completing these tasks in order to remain motivated. This also involves broadening our knowledge base and venturing into new domains to find success. The study of motivation also teaches us that setting definite goals is key to enhancing our motivation levels. These principles of motivation are helpful in all aspects of life, especially the professional side of things. Students and professionals are constantly thrown into situations wherein they have to complete tasks that do not particularly appeal to them or sometimes cause anxiety and distress. Applying these learnings from the psychology of motivation may aid such individuals in achieving their full potential more easily.

Productivity, closely related to motivation, refers to our ability to complete tasks efficiently within a prescribed period of time. Thus, human productivity is a result of human motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic). As individuals living in a social and progressive world, we are all expected to be productive members of society. What this means is that each of us is expected to generate output that will contribute to the welfare (economic, social, ideological) of our communities. Psychology emphasises the role of the flow state in order to achieve peak productivity. The flow state is a state of mind in which creativity peaks, and people tend to lose the sense of time because they become deeply engaged with the task at hand. It is fuelled by intrinsic motivation and gives people a sense of joy and fulfilment. In order to achieve this flow, psychological research finds that we must try to shift our focus to one task at a time; the task should be challenging enough to keep us engaged but not so challenging that we feel demotivated, and we must try our best to eliminate environmental distractions. This is particularly useful information for those working in artistic professions. For example, writers often complain of “writer’s block”. Entering a state of flow could be the cure to their lack of creativity in those times.

Psychology teaches individuals a great deal about how to hone their leadership skills. Leadership can be defined as the process of influencing and mobilising a group or team of individuals so that the goals and objectives of the collective can be identified. Leadership qualities are essential in all domains of life, be it in politics, social activism or business. The art of influencing and subsequently leading a group of people towards achieving specific goals can be mastered using the findings of psychological research. Studies conducted on leadership styles (autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire) teach us how we can alter our leadership techniques to suit our environment so that we may be more effective leaders. Being a better leader will lead to higher productivity, performance and satisfaction amongst group members. This involves allowing members to contribute to decision-making processes, fostering inclusive environments, encouraging discourse, and rewarding innovation. Leadership is an extremely important aspect of organisational behaviour and can help people advance in their professional lives especially in companies. For example, project managers and senior management executives need to unlock the power of leadership so that they may succeed.

As social creatures, human beings not only thrive on meaningful interactions but also require strong relationships to live a content and fulfilling life. The key to any healthy relationship is to understand the other person and to be understood. This exchange of thoughtfulness is only possible when we learn to read emotions and behaviour and other people’s perspective on things. It also requires us to assess our own emotional responses and recognise our flaws. All of these processes are rooted in our understanding of human psychology.

Familial relations particularly require a high level of emotional understanding for multiple people to peacefully coexist in the same shared space. Conflict in families and marriages is primarily due to a lack of meaningful and constructive discourse within the household. Understanding the psychology of relationships is integral to a healthy life.

Also Read: How to get psychology degree online

Psychology creeps into every nook of daily life and is thus a vital discipline to educate ourselves about. Understanding how to use psychological principles and teachings in our everyday activities is beneficial for individuals working in any domain, whether professional or academic. It also allows us to be better allies in a social environment.

The Importance of Psychology in Our Daily Lives – How Psychology can Help You? The Scientific World – Let’s have a moment of science. (2019, November 1). https://www.scientificworldinfo.com/2019/11/the-importance

20 Ways to Use Psychology in Everyday Life . Online Psychology Degree Guide. (2021, May 31). https://www.onlinepsychologydegree.info/great-psychology-tricks-for-success/.

Mcleod, S. (2013). Stages of Memory . Memory, Encoding Storage and Retrieval | Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/memory.html

Cherry, K. (2019). Proven Techniques That Really Work to Improve Your Memory . Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/great-ways-to-improve-your-memory-2795356.

Cherry, K. (n.d.). How to Achieve Flow . Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-flow-2794768#how-to-achieve-flow.

How to Write a Psychology Essay

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Before you write your essay, it’s important to analyse the task and understand exactly what the essay question is asking. Your lecturer may give you some advice – pay attention to this as it will help you plan your answer.

Next conduct preliminary reading based on your lecture notes. At this stage, it’s not crucial to have a robust understanding of key theories or studies, but you should at least have a general “gist” of the literature.

After reading, plan a response to the task. This plan could be in the form of a mind map, a summary table, or by writing a core statement (which encompasses the entire argument of your essay in just a few sentences).

After writing your plan, conduct supplementary reading, refine your plan, and make it more detailed.

It is tempting to skip these preliminary steps and write the first draft while reading at the same time. However, reading and planning will make the essay writing process easier, quicker, and ensure a higher quality essay is produced.

Components of a Good Essay

Now, let us look at what constitutes a good essay in psychology. There are a number of important features.

• Global Structure – structure the material to allow for a logical sequence of ideas. Each paragraph / statement should follow sensibly from its predecessor. The essay should “flow”. The introduction, main body and conclusion should all be linked.
• Each paragraph should comprise a main theme, which is illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).
• Knowledge and Understanding – recognize, recall, and show understanding of a range of scientific material that accurately reflects the main theoretical perspectives.
• Critical Evaluation – arguments should be supported by appropriate evidence and/or theory from the literature. Evidence of independent thinking, insight, and evaluation of the evidence.
• Quality of Written Communication – writing clearly and succinctly with appropriate use of paragraphs, spelling, and grammar. All sources are referenced accurately and in line with APA guidelines.

In the main body of the essay, every paragraph should demonstrate both knowledge and critical evaluation.

There should also be an appropriate balance between these two essay components. Try to aim for about a 60/40 split if possible.

Most students make the mistake of writing too much knowledge and not enough evaluation (which is the difficult bit).

It is best to structure your essay according to key themes. Themes are illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).

Choose relevant points only, ones that most reveal the theme or help to make a convincing and interesting argument.

Knowledge and Understanding

Remember that an essay is simply a discussion / argument on paper. Don’t make the mistake of writing all the information you know regarding a particular topic.

You need to be concise, and clearly articulate your argument. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences.

Each paragraph should have a purpose / theme, and make a number of points – which need to be support by high quality evidence. Be clear why each point is is relevant to the argument. It would be useful at the beginning of each paragraph if you explicitly outlined the theme being discussed (.e.g. cognitive development, social development etc.).

Try not to overuse quotations in your essays. It is more appropriate to use original content to demonstrate your understanding.

Psychology is a science so you must support your ideas with evidence (not your own personal opinion). If you are discussing a theory or research study make sure you cite the source of the information.

Note this is not the author of a textbook you have read – but the original source / author(s) of the theory or research study.

For example:

Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after two and a half to three years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e. there is a critical period.

Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fullfil the next one, and so on.

As a general rule, make sure there is at least one citation (i.e. name of psychologist and date of publication) in each paragraph.

Remember to answer the essay question. Underline the keywords in the essay title. Don’t make the mistake of simply writing everything you know of a particular topic, be selective. Each paragraph in your essay should contribute to answering the essay question.

Critical Evaluation

In simple terms, this means outlining the strengths and limitations of a theory or research study.

There are many ways you can critically evaluate:

Methodological evaluation of research

Is the study valid / reliable ? Is the sample biased, or can we generalize the findings to other populations? What are the strengths and limitations of the method used and data obtained?

Be careful to ensure that any methodological criticisms are justified and not trite.

Rather than hunting for weaknesses in every study; only highlight limitations that make you doubt the conclusions that the authors have drawn – e.g., where an alternative explanation might be equally likely because something hasn’t been adequately controlled.

Compare or contrast different theories

Outline how the theories are similar and how they differ. This could be two (or more) theories of personality / memory / child development etc. Also try to communicate the value of the theory / study.

Debates or perspectives

Refer to debates such as nature or nurture, reductionism vs. holism, or the perspectives in psychology . For example, would they agree or disagree with a theory or the findings of the study?

What are the ethical issues of the research?

Does a study involve ethical issues such as deception, privacy, psychological or physical harm?

Gender bias

If research is biased towards men or women it does not provide a clear view of the behavior that has been studied. A dominantly male perspective is known as an androcentric bias.

Cultural bias

Is the theory / study ethnocentric? Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise. In some texts, over 90% of studies have US participants, who are predominantly white and middle class.

Does the theory or study being discussed judge other cultures by Western standards?

Animal Research

This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use animals. The main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. But benefits are almost always to humans and costs to animals.

Animal research also raises the issue of extrapolation. Can we generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy & physiology is different from humans?

The PEC System

It is very important to elaborate on your evaluation. Don’t just write a shopping list of brief (one or two sentence) evaluation points.

Instead, make sure you expand on your points, remember, quality of evaluation is most important than quantity.

When you are writing an evaluation paragraph, use the PEC system.

• Make your P oint.
• E xplain how and why the point is relevant.
• Discuss the C onsequences / implications of the theory or study. Are they positive or negative?

For Example

• Point: It is argued that psychoanalytic therapy is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority.
• Explain: Because psychoanalytic therapy involves talking and gaining insight, and is costly and time-consuming, it is argued that it is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority. Evidence suggests psychoanalytic therapy works best if the client is motivated and has a positive attitude.
• Consequences: A depressed client’s apathy, flat emotional state, and lack of motivation limit the appropriateness of psychoanalytic therapy for depression.

Furthermore, the levels of dependency of depressed clients mean that transference is more likely to develop.

Using Research Studies in your Essays

Research studies can either be knowledge or evaluation.

• If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding.
• If you comment on what the studies shows, and what it supports and challenges about the theory in question, this shows evaluation.

Writing an Introduction

It is often best to write your introduction when you have finished the main body of the essay, so that you have a good understanding of the topic area.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your introduction.

Ideally, the introduction should;

Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which “lie behind” the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. “Signpost” the essay’s key argument, (and, if possible, how this argument is structured).

Introductions are very important as first impressions count and they can create a h alo effect in the mind of the lecturer grading your essay. If you start off well then you are more likely to be forgiven for the odd mistake later one.

Writing a Conclusion

So many students either forget to write a conclusion or fail to give it the attention it deserves.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your conclusion.

Ideally the conclusion should summarize the key themes / arguments of your essay. State the take home message – don’t sit on the fence, instead weigh up the evidence presented in the essay and make a decision which side of the argument has more support.

Also, you might like to suggest what future research may need to be conducted and why (read the discussion section of journal articles for this).

Don”t include new information / arguments (only information discussed in the main body of the essay).

If you are unsure of what to write read the essay question and answer it in one paragraph.

Points that unite or embrace several themes can be used to great effect as part of your conclusion.

The Importance of Flow

Obviously, what you write is important, but how you communicate your ideas / arguments has a significant influence on your overall grade. Most students may have similar information / content in their essays, but the better students communicate this information concisely and articulately.

When you have finished the first draft of your essay you must check if it “flows”. This is an important feature of quality of communication (along with spelling and grammar).

This means that the paragraphs follow a logical order (like the chapters in a novel). Have a global structure with themes arranged in a way that allows for a logical sequence of ideas. You might want to rearrange (cut and paste) paragraphs to a different position in your essay if they don”t appear to fit in with the essay structure.

To improve the flow of your essay make sure the last sentence of one paragraph links to first sentence of the next paragraph. This will help the essay flow and make it easier to read.

Finally, only repeat citations when it is unclear which study / theory you are discussing. Repeating citations unnecessarily disrupts the flow of an essay.

Referencing

The reference section is the list of all the sources cited in the essay (in alphabetical order). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).

In simple terms every time you cite/refer to a name (and date) of a psychologist you need to reference the original source of the information.

If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites, then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.

References need to be set out APA style :

Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Journal Articles

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers

A simple way to write your reference section is use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.

Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.

Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.

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• Introduction

Early history

Behaviourism, freud and his followers, after world war ii and sputnik.

• Impact and aftermath of the cognitive revolution
• Social cognitive neuroscience
• Epigenetics
• Evolving scope and structure of psychological science
• Multiple tools and methods for diverse goals
• Complex data-analysis methods

• Where was Sigmund Freud educated?
• What did Sigmund Freud die of?
• Why is Sigmund Freud famous?

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• Verywell Mind - An Overview of Psychology
• Simply Psychology - What is Psychology?
• Khan Academy - Introduction to psychology - Depression and major depressive disorder
• Psychology Today - Psychology
• Social Science LibreTexts - What is Psychology?
• WebMD - Guide to Psychiatry and Counseling
• Official Site of the American Psychological Association
• psychology - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• psychology - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

psychology , scientific discipline that studies mental states and processes and behaviour in humans and other animals.

The discipline of psychology is broadly divisible into two parts: a large profession of practitioners and a smaller but growing science of mind , brain , and social behaviour. The two have distinctive goals, training, and practices, but some psychologists integrate the two.

(Read Sigmund Freud’s 1926 Britannica essay on psychoanalysis.)

In Western culture , contributors to the development of psychology came from many areas, beginning with philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle . Hippocrates philosophized about basic human temperaments (e.g., choleric, sanguine , melancholic) and their associated traits. Informed by the biology of his time, he speculated that physical qualities, such as yellow bile or too much blood, might underlie differences in temperament ( see also humour ). Aristotle postulated the brain to be the seat of the rational human mind, and in the 17th century René Descartes argued that the mind gives people the capacities for thought and consciousness : the mind “decides” and the body carries out the decision—a dualistic mind-body split that modern psychological science is still working to overcome. Two figures who helped to found psychology as a formal discipline and science in the 19th century were Wilhelm Wundt in Germany and William James in the United States . James’s The Principles of Psychology (1890) defined psychology as the science of mental life and provided insightful discussions of topics and challenges that anticipated much of the field’s research agenda a century later.

During the first half of the 20th century, however, behaviourism dominated most of American academic psychology. In 1913 John B. Watson , one of the influential founders of behaviourism, urged reliance on only objectively measurable actions and conditions, effectively removing the study of consciousness from psychology. He argued that psychology as a science must deal exclusively with directly observable behaviour in lower animals as well as humans, emphasized the importance of rewarding only desired behaviours in child rearing, and drew on principles of learning through classical conditioning (based on studies with dogs by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov and thus known as Pavlovian conditioning ). In the United States most university psychology departments became devoted to turning psychology away from philosophy and into a rigorous empirical science.

Beginning in the 1930s, behaviourism flourished in the United States, with B.F. Skinner leading the way in demonstrating the power of operant conditioning through reinforcement. Behaviourists in university settings conducted experiments on the conditions controlling learning and “shaping” behaviour through reinforcement, usually working with laboratory animals such as rats and pigeons. Skinner and his followers explicitly excluded mental life, viewing the human mind as an impenetrable “black box,” open only to conjecture and speculative fictions. Their work showed that social behaviour is readily influenced by manipulating specific contingencies and by changing the consequences or reinforcement (rewards) to which behaviour leads in different situations. Changes in those consequences can modify behaviour in predictable stimulus-response (S-R) patterns. Likewise, a wide range of emotions , both positive and negative, may be acquired through processes of conditioning and can be modified by applying the same principles.

Concurrently, in a curious juxtaposition , the psychoanalytic theories and therapeutic practices developed by the Vienna-trained physician Sigmund Freud and his many disciples—beginning early in the 20th century and enduring for many decades—were undermining the traditional view of human nature as essentially rational. Freudian theory made reason secondary: for Freud, the unconscious and its often socially unacceptable irrational motives and desires, particularly the sexual and aggressive, were the driving force underlying much of human behaviour and mental illness . Making the unconscious conscious became the therapeutic goal of clinicians working within this framework.

Freud proposed that much of what humans feel, think, and do is outside awareness, self-defensive in its motivations, and unconsciously determined. Much of it also reflects conflicts grounded in early childhood that play out in complex patterns of seemingly paradoxical behaviours and symptoms. His followers, the ego psychologists, emphasized the importance of the higher-order functions and cognitive processes (e.g., competence motivation , self-regulatory abilities) as well as the individual’s psychological defense mechanisms . They also shifted their focus to the roles of interpersonal relations and of secure attachment in mental health and adaptive functioning, and they pioneered the analysis of these processes in the clinical setting.

After World War II , American psychology, particularly clinical psychology, grew into a substantial field in its own right, partly in response to the needs of returning veterans. The growth of psychology as a science was stimulated further by the launching of Sputnik in 1957 and the opening of the Russian-American space race to the Moon . As part of this race, the U.S. government fueled the growth of science. For the first time, massive federal funding became available, both to support behavioral research and to enable graduate training. Psychology became both a thriving profession of practitioners and a scientific discipline that investigated all aspects of human social behaviour, child development , and individual differences, as well as the areas of animal psychology, sensation , perception , memory , and learning.

Training in clinical psychology was heavily influenced by Freudian psychology and its offshoots. But some clinical researchers, working with both normal and disturbed populations, began to develop and apply methods focusing on the learning conditions that influence and control social behaviour. This behaviour therapy movement analyzed problematic behaviours (e.g., aggressiveness , bizarre speech patterns, smoking , fear responses) in terms of the observable events and conditions that seemed to influence the person’s problematic behaviour. Behavioral approaches led to innovations for therapy by working to modify problematic behaviour not through insight, awareness, or the uncovering of unconscious motivations but by addressing the behaviour itself. Behaviourists attempted to modify the maladaptive behaviour directly, examining the conditions controlling the individual’s current problems, not their possible historical roots. They also intended to show that such efforts could be successful without the symptom substitution that Freudian theory predicted. Freudians believed that removing the troubling behaviour directly would be followed by new and worse problems. Behaviour therapists showed that this was not necessarily the case.

To begin exploring the role of genetics in personality and social development , psychologists compared the similarity in personality shown by people who share the same genes or the same environment . Twin studies compared monozygotic (identical) as opposed to dizygotic (fraternal) twins, raised either in the same or in different environments . Overall, these studies demonstrated the important role of heredity in a wide range of human characteristics and traits, such as those of the introvert and extravert , and indicated that the biological-genetic influence was far greater than early behaviourism had assumed. At the same time, it also became clear that how such dispositions are expressed in behaviour depends importantly on interactions with the environment in the course of development, beginning in utero.

Psychology in Everyday life Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Seligman’s video, silver’s video, terry gross’ talk, jill bolte taylor’ video, works cited.

When psychology is mentioned, the most common mental image that forms in the minds of many individuals is that of a profession that entails working in a clinic or hospital. This image describes the role of one particular type of a psychologist known as the clinical psychologist. There are many other types of psychologists given the diverse nature of psychology.

Psychology covers a large number of areas because psychologists perform numerous different functions ranging from research to providing psychological services to individuals, businesses or schools. Psychologists are usually identified with one particular specialty or subfield within psychology which may include experimental, clinical developmental, social psychology and educational psychology.

While some individuals may think of psychology as a course that is only important to students, therapists or everyone else that is interested in the field of psychology, knowledge in psychology is actually helpful to everyone in relation to improving the quality of everyday life.

Despite the fact that the most of the materials available for studying psychology can be very challenging to read through for the average individual, there are experiments that have revealed that psychology can go a long way in helping individuals handle some of the numerous challenges experienced in life. This essay shall explore three such materials that explore how psychology can be helpful in treatment of psychological disorders.

Of the numerous materials that explore the field of psychology is a video featuring Martin Seligman that illustrates the benefits of positive psychology.

Seligman, a University of Pennsylvania psychologist, is singled out as the individuals who ignited the recent explosion of interest in positive psychology, perhaps driven by the need to make people utilize psychology to improve the quality of their lives. In his video about positive psychology, Seligman explores the field of psychology as it is studied and examined and how it applied by patient and practitioners.

As one watches this video, it comes out rather obvious that Seligman is stating that psychology is concerned with more than just treating psychological disorders and that it can be applied to several other fields including improving quality of life. Even though Seligman’s talk in this video does little to back up the claims stated with scientifically researched data, it explores several experimental methods that have been used to illustrate the positive effects that arise from various practices.

Seligman also briefly talks about the length of time that these positive effects have been known to last. One of the notable statements included in this video is that happiness is more than just the state of nonexistence of a disorder but an expression that is felt by individuals upon applying their signature strengths.

This statement is followed by an exploration of numerous rigorously tested measures that not only help in increasing the level of happiness but also in decreasing the level of depression among the individuals. Dr. Seligman also attributes some of the ideas included in his talk to some researchers who explored the field of positive psychology before him and even mentions some of the ideas he borrowed from their findings.

Generally, Dr. Seligman illustrated the importance of psychology and how much fun one can derive from applying psychological techniques in helping individuals live a life that is happier, more engaging, and meaningful. Any individual who watches this video is likely to be drawn by the mind opening conversations included in this video and may even experience some eagerness to apply the numerous innovative ideas explored by Dr. Seligman to his or her everyday life.

The other video that explores the field of psychology is the one titled “how to do a self hypnosis.” In this video, Andy Silver who is a performance coach who normally uses Neuro-Linguistic Programming and hypnosis, demonstrates how to perform hypnosis on a patient who in this video is called Joyce.

This video is a good example of how psychological can be used to help people who may not necessarily be suffering from mental illnesses. Hypnosis has the positive psychological effect of altering perception. As has been demonstrated in this video, hypnosis can not only be useful in curing mental conditions but also in improving an individual’s way of thinking.

In this case, Silver is utilizing hypnosis to help the patient improve her performance by focusing her thoughts on the things she wants and where she wants to be instead of thinking of the things she does not want. By helping the patient develop positive thinking through hypnosis, Silver is actually helping Joyce increase her self confidence levels and success rates.

The other video that illustrates how the science of psychology can be helpful in understanding human behaviors and habits is Terry Gross’ “Fresh Air” interview of David Linden which explored the reasons behind the good feelings that accompany some common actions in almost everyone. In the interview that centered on his recently published book titled “The compass of pleasure,” Linden explains that the brain’s lack of ability to feel pleasure is what can be used to scientifically define addiction.

He further states in the interview that while most individuals can attain certain amounts of pleasure without overindulging in the activities that cause them pleasure, there are those individuals, particularly those with dopamine systems that are blunted, who are most likely to over indulge in pleasurable activities to attain the same level of pleasure that other individuals achieve with ease.

He gives an example of this by pointing out that while some individuals achieve pleasure after just two bottles of beer, there are those individuals who have to consume six bottles of beer to get to the same level of pleasure.

As the talk continues, Linden states that it is through the understanding of the science behind the brain’s perception of pleasure that can enable us to be in a better position to administer the proper treatment to those suffering from addictions.

The talk gets more interesting when Linden points out that most people who find themselves addicted to certain activities are driven by more than just the desire to engage in those actions. Rather, the need to satisfy a certain need also significantly contributes to turning a pleasurable activity into an addiction.

Dr Jill Bolte’s talk is yet another video that demonstrates the usefulness of having knowledge in psychology. In this video, Dr. Jill tells a story of how she experienced and recovered from a massive stroke and goes ahead to explain to her audience about what she learnt in relation to the meaning of life from this scary experience.

Not all patients who have experienced a massive brain stoke can have the ability to describe their experiences during the stroke and recovery period as lucidly as Dr. Jill does. Being Neuro-Anatomist who mostly deals with the human brain, Dr. Jill utilizes the knowledge she has gained over the years during her profession together with her experience to paint a clear picture of the functioning of the human brain after a massive stroke.

From the way Dr Jill explains how she felt during the stroke and the eight year recovery period, one gets to understand what individuals who have gone through a stroke feel like. It is from understanding such individuals and what they are going through that we can be able to help them deal with their situations.

She then encourages her audience to live a full life everyday and not to wait for a near death experience such as the one she faced to teach force then into consciousness. The talk is generally about the functioning of the human brain and how a stroke can interfere with the normal functioning of one’s brain.

Dr. Jill’s story is an authoritative talk that explores how the functioning of the human brain helps humans to connect with not only one another, but with the world as well. The information contained in this video can prove every helpful and insightful to an individual recovering from a stroke and to anyone who is helping such an individual recover.

Apart from videos, there are also numerous other materials that are readily available to individuals interested in enhancing their knowledge about psychology. One commonly read material that is related to psychology is the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV).

The DSM-IV and the editions that predeceased it are published by the American Psychological Association for the main purpose of providing clinicians with a well defined classification system that is based on objective and measurable criteria to make it easier to make reliable diagnoses of psychological disorders.

The DSM-IV describes mental disorders and barely attempts to account for how these disturbances come about. Specified diagnostic criteria are presented for each disorder and include a list of features that must be present for the diagnosis to be made.

The DSM-IV also systematically discusses each disorder in terms of its associated descriptors such as age, gender, prevalence, incidence and risk factors. The DSM-IV is basically intended for the purposes of classification and diagnosis and does not suggest therapies of treatment for the various forms of psychological conditions.

The DSM-IV utilizes a five-axis system that evaluates patients along several dimensions. The first and second axes make up the entire classification of mental disorders. Before a diagnosis is made, the patient should be subjected to the entire five-axis criteria for diagnosis.

The first axis of diagnosis is made up of conditions that fall under the category of clinical disorders and these include major depression and schizophrenia. The second axis is made up of personality and developmental disorders. Conditions such as mental retardation and autism are examples of those classified under developmental disorders paranoia and anti-social behaviors are classified as personality disorders.

The third axis is made up of physical disorders and other general medicinal conditions. The fourth axis is used to code psychosocial problems that contribute to a patient’s psychiatric problem. The data about these stressors are especially helpful during the development of patent treatment plans. Finally, the fifth axis is helpful in developing a global assessment of functioning (GAF) which is based on a continuum of health and illness, using a 100-point scale on which 100 the highest level of functioning.

Psychology is not only used to treat patients suffering from mental conditions but also in improving the quality of life of healthy individuals.

This essay has explored two videos illustrating different ways of applying psychology and an article that explores several steps that are taken in the diagnosis of a mental condition. The information in this essay illustrates the importance of possessing knowledge in psychology.

“Compass of pleasure: why some things feel so good.” Fresh Air 23 June 2011. Digital file.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV).15 May, 2004. Web.

Seligman, Martin.”Martin Seligman on positive psychology.” Ted , July 2008. Digital file.

Silver, Andy. “How to do self-hypnosis.” e-how health . Digital file.

Taylor, Jill Bolte. “How it feels to have a stroke.” 13 March, 2008. You tube video

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What do psychology and psychologists offer humanity?

Psychological associations from around the globe unite to make the case that the world needs psychology’s unique contributions – possibly now more than ever.

What is psychology? Why do governments need psychologists? What makes this field and profession unique? More than 60 national, regional and international psychological associations from around the world collaborated on a joint statement to answer these questions. The statement, which has been translated into 24 languages, challenges leaders, decision makers, and the public to recognize psychology’s critically important role in every aspect of human functioning at the individual and societal levels. As the world faces crises without precedent, psychologists’ contributions to the alleviation of physical, emotional, and mental impacts on individuals, families and communities are indispensable.

What is psychology and what do psychologists do? 

The science of psychology generates knowledge about the nature and development of human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors at both individual and societal levels. Psychology is an autonomous scientific discipline that applies to nearly every aspect of our boundless experience. Psychologists work in a broad range of settings—effectively any place where human functioning is relevant. Psychological science deepens our understanding of human behavior within social, cultural and linguistic contexts 1 . Psychologists have a role in supporting health and well-being globally within a human rights framework with the goal of improving lives.

Why do governments need psychology and psychologists?

It is humanly and financially beneficial for governments to recognize that psychologists make critical independent contributions to the alleviation of suffering and the enhancement of lives 2 . Social determinants of health, such as education, adequate food and nutrition, a reasonable standard of living, work opportunities and equitable treatment are recognized as fundamental human rights enshrined in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 . Failure to address mental health challenges, such as depression and anxiety, that are often a consequence of lack of attention to social determinants of health costs the global economy $1 trillion annually in lost productivity 2 . Prevention and intervention of psychological health conditions, however, have been proven highly cost beneficial ii . When psychological science is applied to the contexts in which humans live, work, and play, potential and productivity increase 8, 9 . Yet, in spite of the existence of both money-saving and clinically effective services for at-risk populations or those demonstrating symptoms of mental disorders, the majority of youth and adults in almost every country in the world receive no psychological treatment due to limited resources, stigma and lack of healthcare providers 10, 11 . 

What is unique about psychology and psychologists?

Psychologists understand biological, social and environmental research and are trained to apply solid evidence to improve human lives across cultures and languages. To become a psychologist, one must demonstrate high professional, scientific, and ethical knowledge and standards. Psychologists’ advanced preparation emphasizes technical and scientific autonomy and independent roles within transdisciplinary teams to promote human well-being in every area of life (e.g., family, school, university, health, workplace, public service, and communities to name a few) 12 . Psychologists work by applying the scientific method and complementary diagnostic, assessment, and reasoning skills to provide comprehensive and integrated approaches to human health.  Employing psychologists for independent, decision-making roles aligns with their advanced training. As the world faces crises without precedent, psychologists’ contributions to the alleviation of physical, emotional, and mental impacts on individuals, groups, and communities are critical 13 .

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This statement was developed and supported by the following national, regional, and international psychological associations:

• American Psychological Association
• Asociación Proyecto Aigle Guatemala
• Association of Psychologists in Nepal
• Association of Psychologists of Senegal
• Australian Psychological Society
• Bahamas Psychological Association
• Bangladesh Clinical Psychology Society
• Bangladesh Psychological Association
• Brazilian Society of Psychology
• British Psychological Society
• Canadian Psychological Association
• Caribbean Alliance of National Psychological Associations
• Chilean Scientific Society of Psychology
• Chinese Psychological Society
• Colegio de Psicólogos de Guatemala  
• College of Psychologists of Peru
• Colombian College of Psychologists
• Coordinadora de Psicólogos del Uruguay
• Cuban Society of Health Psychology
• Cuban Society of Psychology
• Dominican College of Psychologists
• Ecuadorian Society of Psychotherapy
• European Federation of Psychologists' Associations
• Federation Française des Psychologues et de Psychologie  
• Federation of German Psychologists' Associations
• Federation of Psychologists of Venezuela
• Flemish Association of Clinical Psychologists
• French National Committee for Psychological Science
• Haitian Association of Psychology
• Indonesian Psychological Association (HIMPSI)
• Interamerican Society of Psychology
• International Association of Applied Psychology
• International Council of Psychologists
• International Union of Psychological Science
• Jamaican Psychological Society
• Jordanian Clinical Psychologists Association
• Korean Psychological Association
• Lebanese Psychological Association
• Macedonian Association for Applied Psychology
• Middle East Psychological Association
• National Psychological Association of Ukraine
• National University of Uzbekistan
• Netherlands Institute of Psychologists
• New Zealand Psychological Society
• Nicaraguan Association for the Development of Psychology
• Nigerian Psychological Association
• Norwegian Psychological Association
• Order of Psychologists of Albania
• Order of Psychologists of Piedmont, Italy
• Pakistan Psychological Association
• Portuguese Psychologists Association
• Psychological Association of Namibia
• Psychological Association of the Philippines
• Psychological Society of Ireland
• Serbian Psychological Society
• Singapore Psychological Society
• Spanish Psychological Association
• Sri Lanka Psychological Association
• Tanzanian Psychological Association
• Uganda Council of Psychologists
• Universidad de Chile
• Zanzibar Psychological Counselling Association

1 Hays, P.A.& Iwamasha, G.Y. (2006).  Culturally Responsive Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: Assessment, Practice, and Supervision . American Psychological Association

2 Chisholm, D., Sweeny, K., Sheehan, P., Rasmussen, B., Smit, F., Cuijpers, P., & Saxena, S. (2016). Scaling-up treatment of depression and anxiety: A global return on investment analysis . Lancet Psychiatry , Vol.3, 415–424. DOI:  : 10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30024-4 .

3 Adler, E. N., & Newman, K., (2002) Socioeconomic disparities in health: pathways and policies, Health Aff (Millwood), Vol.21 Iss.2. DOI: http://doi.org/ 10.1377/hlthaff.21.2.60

4 Allen, J., Balfour, R., Bell, R., & Marmot, M., (2014) Social determinats of mental health, International review of Psychiatry, Vol. 26 Iss. 4. DOI: http://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2014.928270

5 Saegert, S., Evans, G. W., (2003) Poverty, housing niches, and health in the United States, Journal of Social issues, Vol. 59 Iss. 3, 569-589. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00078

6 Saxena, S., Thornicroft, G., Knapp, M., & Whiteford, H., (2007) Resources for mental health: scarcity, inequity, and inefficiency, The Lancet , Vol. 370 Iss. 9590, 878-889. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61239-2

7 Walker, R., Keane, C. R., & Burke, J., (2010) Disparities and access to healthy food in the United States: A review of food deserts literature, Health & Place, Vol. 16 Iss. 5, 876-884. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.04.013

8 Kelly J.G., Ryan A.M., Altman B.E., Stelzner S.P.(2000) Understanding and Changing Social Systems. In: Rappaport J., Seidman E. (eds) Handbook of Community Psychology. Springer, Boston, MA. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-4193-6_7

9 Weissman, M., & Cuijpers, P., (2007) Psychotherapy over the Last four decades, Harvard Rev Psychiatry, Vol. 25 Iss.4, 155-158. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/hrp.0000000000000165

10 Mental Health America, 2019 https://www.uncrushed.org/content/2019/9/23/the-state-of-mental-health-in-america-2020

11 Wang, P. S., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Angermeyer, M. C., Borges, G., Bromet. E. J., Bruffaerts, R., De Girolamo, G., De Graaf, R., Gureje, O., Haro, J. M., Karam, E. G., Klesser, R., Koveness, V., Lane, M. C., Lee, S., Levinson, D., Ono, Y., Et al., (2007) Use of mental health services for anxiety, mood, and substance disorders in 17 countries in WHO world mental health surveys, The Lancet, Vol. 370 Iss. 9590, 841-850. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61414-7

12 Huppert, A. H., Psychological well-being: evidence regarding its causes and consequences, (2009) Health and Well-Being, Vol. 1 Iss. 2, 137-164. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2009.01008.x

13 Wandersman, A., & Florin, P., (2003) Community interventions and effective prevention, American Psychologist. DOI:  http://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.6-7.441

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2.1 Why Is Research Important?

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain how scientific research addresses questions about behavior
• Discuss how scientific research guides public policy
• Appreciate how scientific research can be important in making personal decisions

Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people’s authority, and blind luck. While many of us feel confident in our abilities to decipher and interact with the world around us, history is filled with examples of how very wrong we can be when we fail to recognize the need for evidence in supporting claims. At various times in history, we would have been certain that the sun revolved around a flat earth, that the earth’s continents did not move, and that mental illness was caused by possession ( Figure 2.2 ). It is through systematic scientific research that we divest ourselves of our preconceived notions and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world.

The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior. In contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behavior of others, such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is empirical : It is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.

While behavior is observable, the mind is not. If someone is crying, we can see behavior. However, the reason for the behavior is more difficult to determine. Is the person crying due to being sad, in pain, or happy? Sometimes we can learn the reason for someone’s behavior by simply asking a question, like “Why are you crying?” However, there are situations in which an individual is either uncomfortable or unwilling to answer the question honestly, or is incapable of answering. For example, infants would not be able to explain why they are crying. In such circumstances, the psychologist must be creative in finding ways to better understand behavior. This chapter explores how scientific knowledge is generated, and how important that knowledge is in forming decisions in our personal lives and in the public domain.

Use of Research Information

Trying to determine which theories are and are not accepted by the scientific community can be difficult, especially in an area of research as broad as psychology. More than ever before, we have an incredible amount of information at our fingertips, and a simple internet search on any given research topic might result in a number of contradictory studies. In these cases, we are witnessing the scientific community going through the process of reaching a consensus, and it could be quite some time before a consensus emerges. For example, the explosion in our use of technology has led researchers to question whether this ultimately helps or hinders us. The use and implementation of technology in educational settings has become widespread over the last few decades. Researchers are coming to different conclusions regarding the use of technology. To illustrate this point, a study investigating a smartphone app targeting surgery residents (graduate students in surgery training) found that the use of this app can increase student engagement and raise test scores (Shaw & Tan, 2015). Conversely, another study found that the use of technology in undergraduate student populations had negative impacts on sleep, communication, and time management skills (Massimini & Peterson, 2009). Until sufficient amounts of research have been conducted, there will be no clear consensus on the effects that technology has on a student's acquisition of knowledge, study skills, and mental health.

In the meantime, we should strive to think critically about the information we encounter by exercising a degree of healthy skepticism. When someone makes a claim, we should examine the claim from a number of different perspectives: what is the expertise of the person making the claim, what might they gain if the claim is valid, does the claim seem justified given the evidence, and what do other researchers think of the claim? This is especially important when we consider how much information in advertising campaigns and on the internet claims to be based on “scientific evidence” when in actuality it is a belief or perspective of just a few individuals trying to sell a product or draw attention to their perspectives.

We should be informed consumers of the information made available to us because decisions based on this information have significant consequences. One such consequence can be seen in politics and public policy. Imagine that you have been elected as the governor of your state. One of your responsibilities is to manage the state budget and determine how to best spend your constituents’ tax dollars. As the new governor, you need to decide whether to continue funding early intervention programs. These programs are designed to help children who come from low-income backgrounds, have special needs, or face other disadvantages. These programs may involve providing a wide variety of services to maximize the children's development and position them for optimal levels of success in school and later in life (Blann, 2005). While such programs sound appealing, you would want to be sure that they also proved effective before investing additional money in these programs. Fortunately, psychologists and other scientists have conducted vast amounts of research on such programs and, in general, the programs are found to be effective (Neil & Christensen, 2009; Peters-Scheffer, Didden, Korzilius, & Sturmey, 2011). While not all programs are equally effective, and the short-term effects of many such programs are more pronounced, there is reason to believe that many of these programs produce long-term benefits for participants (Barnett, 2011). If you are committed to being a good steward of taxpayer money, you would want to look at research. Which programs are most effective? What characteristics of these programs make them effective? Which programs promote the best outcomes? After examining the research, you would be best equipped to make decisions about which programs to fund.

Link to Learning

Watch this video about early childhood program effectiveness to learn how scientists evaluate effectiveness and how best to invest money into programs that are most effective.

Ultimately, it is not just politicians who can benefit from using research in guiding their decisions. We all might look to research from time to time when making decisions in our lives. Imagine that your sister, Maria, expresses concern about her two-year-old child, Umberto. Umberto does not speak as much or as clearly as the other children in his daycare or others in the family. Umberto's pediatrician undertakes some screening and recommends an evaluation by a speech pathologist, but does not refer Maria to any other specialists. Maria is concerned that Umberto's speech delays are signs of a developmental disorder, but Umberto's pediatrician does not; she sees indications of differences in Umberto's jaw and facial muscles. Hearing this, you do some internet searches, but you are overwhelmed by the breadth of information and the wide array of sources. You see blog posts, top-ten lists, advertisements from healthcare providers, and recommendations from several advocacy organizations. Why are there so many sites? Which are based in research, and which are not?

In the end, research is what makes the difference between facts and opinions. Facts are observable realities, and opinions are personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate. In the scientific community, facts can be established only using evidence collected through empirical research.

NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

Psychological research has a long history involving important figures from diverse backgrounds. While the introductory chapter discussed several researchers who made significant contributions to the discipline, there are many more individuals who deserve attention in considering how psychology has advanced as a science through their work ( Figure 2.3 ). For instance, Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) was the first woman to earn a PhD in psychology. Her research focused on animal behavior and cognition (Margaret Floy Washburn, PhD, n.d.). Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was a preeminent first-generation American psychologist who opposed the behaviorist movement, conducted significant research into memory, and established one of the earliest experimental psychology labs in the United States (Mary Whiton Calkins, n.d.).

Francis Sumner (1895–1954) was the first African American to receive a PhD in psychology in 1920. His dissertation focused on issues related to psychoanalysis. Sumner also had research interests in racial bias and educational justice. Sumner was one of the founders of Howard University’s department of psychology, and because of his accomplishments, he is sometimes referred to as the “Father of Black Psychology.” Thirteen years later, Inez Beverly Prosser (1895–1934) became the first African American woman to receive a PhD in psychology. Prosser’s research highlighted issues related to education in segregated versus integrated schools, and ultimately, her work was very influential in the hallmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court ruling that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional (Ethnicity and Health in America Series: Featured Psychologists, n.d.).

Although the establishment of psychology’s scientific roots occurred first in Europe and the United States, it did not take much time until researchers from around the world began to establish their own laboratories and research programs. For example, some of the first experimental psychology laboratories in South America were founded by Horatio Piñero (1869–1919) at two institutions in Buenos Aires, Argentina (Godoy & Brussino, 2010). In India, Gunamudian David Boaz (1908–1965) and Narendra Nath Sen Gupta (1889–1944) established the first independent departments of psychology at the University of Madras and the University of Calcutta, respectively. These developments provided an opportunity for Indian researchers to make important contributions to the field (Gunamudian David Boaz, n.d.; Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, n.d.).

When the American Psychological Association (APA) was first founded in 1892, all of the members were White males (Women and Minorities in Psychology, n.d.). However, by 1905, Mary Whiton Calkins was elected as the first female president of the APA, and by 1946, nearly one-quarter of American psychologists were female. Psychology became a popular degree option for students enrolled in the nation’s historically Black higher education institutions, increasing the number of Black Americans who went on to become psychologists. Given demographic shifts occurring in the United States and increased access to higher educational opportunities among historically underrepresented populations, there is reason to hope that the diversity of the field will increasingly match the larger population, and that the research contributions made by the psychologists of the future will better serve people of all backgrounds (Women and Minorities in Psychology, n.d.).

The Process of Scientific Research

Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the scientific method . Basically, ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses) are tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations), and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on. In this sense, the scientific process is circular. The types of reasoning within the circle are called deductive and inductive. In deductive reasoning , ideas are tested in the real world; in inductive reasoning , real-world observations lead to new ideas ( Figure 2.4 ). These processes are inseparable, like inhaling and exhaling, but different research approaches place different emphasis on the deductive and inductive aspects.

In the scientific context, deductive reasoning begins with a generalization—one hypothesis—that is then used to reach logical conclusions about the real world. If the hypothesis is correct, then the logical conclusions reached through deductive reasoning should also be correct. A deductive reasoning argument might go something like this: All living things require energy to survive (this would be your hypothesis). Ducks are living things. Therefore, ducks require energy to survive (logical conclusion). In this example, the hypothesis is correct; therefore, the conclusion is correct as well. Sometimes, however, an incorrect hypothesis may lead to a logical but incorrect conclusion. Consider this argument: all ducks are born with the ability to see. Quackers is a duck. Therefore, Quackers was born with the ability to see. Scientists use deductive reasoning to empirically test their hypotheses. Returning to the example of the ducks, researchers might design a study to test the hypothesis that if all living things require energy to survive, then ducks will be found to require energy to survive.

Deductive reasoning starts with a generalization that is tested against real-world observations; however, inductive reasoning moves in the opposite direction. Inductive reasoning uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations. Unlike deductive reasoning, conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based. For instance, you may notice that your favorite fruits—apples, bananas, and oranges—all grow on trees; therefore, you assume that all fruit must grow on trees. This would be an example of inductive reasoning, and, clearly, the existence of strawberries, blueberries, and kiwi demonstrate that this generalization is not correct despite it being based on a number of direct observations. Scientists use inductive reasoning to formulate theories, which in turn generate hypotheses that are tested with deductive reasoning. In the end, science involves both deductive and inductive processes.

For example, case studies, which you will read about in the next section, are heavily weighted on the side of empirical observations. Thus, case studies are closely associated with inductive processes as researchers gather massive amounts of observations and seek interesting patterns (new ideas) in the data. Experimental research, on the other hand, puts great emphasis on deductive reasoning.

We’ve stated that theories and hypotheses are ideas, but what sort of ideas are they, exactly? A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena. Theories are repeatedly checked against the world, but they tend to be too complex to be tested all at once; instead, researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory.

A hypothesis is a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests Figure 2.5 .

To see how this process works, let’s consider a specific theory and a hypothesis that might be generated from that theory. As you’ll learn in a later chapter, the James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotional experience relies on the physiological arousal associated with the emotional state. If you walked out of your home and discovered a very aggressive snake waiting on your doorstep, your heart would begin to race and your stomach churn. According to the James-Lange theory, these physiological changes would result in your feeling of fear. A hypothesis that could be derived from this theory might be that a person who is unaware of the physiological arousal that the sight of the snake elicits will not feel fear.

A scientific hypothesis is also falsifiable , or capable of being shown to be incorrect. Recall from the introductory chapter that Sigmund Freud had lots of interesting ideas to explain various human behaviors ( Figure 2.6 ). However, a major criticism of Freud’s theories is that many of his ideas are not falsifiable; for example, it is impossible to imagine empirical observations that would disprove the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego—the three elements of personality described in Freud’s theories. Despite this, Freud’s theories are widely taught in introductory psychology texts because of their historical significance for personality psychology and psychotherapy, and these remain the root of all modern forms of therapy.

In contrast, the James-Lange theory does generate falsifiable hypotheses, such as the one described above. Some individuals who suffer significant injuries to their spinal columns are unable to feel the bodily changes that often accompany emotional experiences. Therefore, we could test the hypothesis by determining how emotional experiences differ between individuals who have the ability to detect these changes in their physiological arousal and those who do not. In fact, this research has been conducted and while the emotional experiences of people deprived of an awareness of their physiological arousal may be less intense, they still experience emotion (Chwalisz, Diener, & Gallagher, 1988).

Scientific research’s dependence on falsifiability allows for great confidence in the information that it produces. Typically, by the time information is accepted by the scientific community, it has been tested repeatedly.

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The Importance of Psychology in Our Daily Lives - How Psychology can Help You?

What is the Importance of Psychology in Our Daily Lives and How Psychology can Help You Improve Your Lifestyle?

Psychology facts, the importance of psychology in everyday life, why should you study psychology, 1. psychology is a social science, 2. psychology helps in understanding relationships, 3. psychology helps build critical thinking skills, 4. psychology offers greater employment opportunities, 5. psychology is one of the most effective areas in the workplace, what is the role of psychology in the workplace.

How Psychology Can Help You Improve Your Lifestyle?

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What Is Positive Psychology & Why Is It Important?

There are some common misconceptions about positive psychology, both about what it is and what it is not.

To clear up some of these misunderstandings and provide a brief but comprehensive overview of the field, we’ve put together this piece focused on defining and describing the positive psychology movement.

Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology including strengths, values and self-compassion and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is positive psychology: a definition, on the founder: martin seligman, 17 benefits of positive psychology, theory and concepts, goals of positive psychology (in coaching), an introduction to the perma model, meaning of topics like flow and flourishing, examples of positive psychology in practice (+pdf), criticism of the movement in perspective, 7 other definitions, a take-home message.

Positive psychology has been described in many ways and with many words, but the commonly accepted definition of the field is this:

“Positive psychology is the scientific study of what makes life most worth living” (Peterson, 2008).

To push this brief description a bit further, positive psychology is a scientific approach to studying human thoughts, feelings, and behavior, with a focus on strengths instead of weaknesses, building the good in life instead of repairing the bad, and taking the lives of average people up to “great” instead of focusing solely on moving those who are struggling up to “normal” (Peterson, 2008).

What Positive Psychology Focuses on in a Nutshell

Positive psychology focuses on the positive events and influences in life, including:

• Positive experiences (like happiness , joy, inspiration, and love).
• Positive states and traits (like gratitude, resilience , and compassion ).
• Positive institutions (applying positive principles within entire organizations and institutions).

As a field, positive psychology spends much of its time thinking about topics like character strengths, optimism, life satisfaction , happiness, wellbeing , gratitude, compassion (as well as self-compassion), self-esteem and self-confidence , hope , and elevation.

These topics are studied in order to learn how to help people flourish and live their best lives.

Martin Seligman is a researcher with a broad range of experience in psychology.

If you had never heard of the positive psychology movement until now, you still might have heard his name at some point. Seligman’s research in the 1960s and 70s laid the foundation for the well-known psychological theory of “ learned helplessness .”

This theory, which has been backed by decades of research, explains how humans and animals can learn to become helpless and feel they have lost control over what happens to them.

Seligman connected this phenomenon with depression, noting that many people suffering from depression feel helpless as well. His work on the subject provided inspiration, ideas, and evidence to back up many treatments for depressive symptoms, as well as strategies for preventing depression.

While this is impressive enough on its own, Seligman knew that he had more to offer the psychology community and the world at large—in particular, more work on the positive, the uplifting, and the inspiring. After making a name for himself with learned helplessness, he turned his attention to other traits, characteristics , and perspectives that could be learned.

He found what he was looking for in resilience and learned optimism, findings that became the groundwork for his widely administered resilience programs for children and members of the military, among others.

Seligman grew frustrated with psychology’s overly narrow focus on the negative; so much attention was paid to mental illness, abnormal psychology, trauma , suffering, and pain, and relatively little attention was dedicated to happiness, wellbeing, exceptionalism, strengths, and flourishing .

When he was elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1998, he jumped at the opportunity to alter the direction of the field from such an influential position. He proposed a new subfield of psychology with a focus on what is life-giving rather than life-depleting. The foundational paper of this new field, positive psychology, was published in 2000 by Seligman and the “founding father” of flow, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi .

Since 2000, Seligman’s call for a greater focus on the positive in life has been answered by thousands of researchers around the world, provoking tens of thousands of studies on positive phenomena and establishing a base for the application of positive principles to coaching, teaching, relationships, the workplace, and every other life domain.

The plethora of projects and papers on positive topics has provided an enormous repository of knowledge on how to encourage ourselves and those around us to live the best lives possible.

It would be impossible to list all of the benefits of positive psychology, but we’ll try to give a comprehensive overview of some of the most impactful and influential outcomes of practicing positive psychology.

In general, the greatest potential benefit of positive psychology is that it teaches us the power of shifting one’s perspective.

This is the focus of many techniques, exercises, and even entire programs based on positive psychology because a relatively small change in one’s perspective can lead to astounding shifts in wellbeing and quality of life. Injecting a bit more optimism and gratitude into your life is a simple action that can give you a radically more positive outlook on life.

Of course, no respected positive psychologist would tell you to think about, act out, and focus on ONLY the positive in life—balance is important. Positive psychology was not established to replace traditional psychology, but to complement it with a positive bias that’s just as strong as psychology’s negative bias over the last several decades.

Studies and Research

Positive psychology teaches how to harness the power of shifting one’s perspective to maximize the potential for happiness in many of our everyday behaviors. For example, each of these findings gives us a concrete idea for improving our own quality of life:

• People overestimate the impact of money on their happiness by quite a lot. It does have some influence, but not nearly as much as we might think, so focusing less on attaining wealth will likely make you happier (Aknin, Norton, & Dunn, 2009);
• Spending money on experiences provides a bigger boost to happiness than spending money on material possessions (Howell & Hill, 2009);
• Gratitude is a big contributor to happiness in life, suggesting that the more we cultivate gratitude, the happier we will be (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005);
• Oxytocin may provoke greater trust, empathy, and morality in humans, meaning that giving hugs or other shows of physical affection may give you a big boost to your overall wellbeing (and the wellbeing of others; Barraza & Zak, 2009);
• Those who intentionally cultivate a positive mood to match the outward emotion they need to display (i.e., in emotional labor) benefit by more genuinely experiencing the positive mood. In other words, “putting on a happy face” won’t necessarily make you feel happier, but putting in a little bit of effort likely will (Scott & Barnes, 2011);
• Happiness is contagious; those with happy friends and significant others are more likely to be happy in the future (Fowler & Christakis, 2008);
• People who perform acts of kindness towards others not only get a boost in wellbeing, they are also more accepted by their peers (Layous, Nelson, Oberle, Schonert-Reichl, & Lyubomirsky, 2012);
• Volunteering time to a cause you believe in improves your wellbeing and life satisfaction and may even reduce symptoms of depression (Jenkinson et al., 2013);
• Spending money on other people results in greater happiness for the giver (Dunn, Aknin, & Norton, 2008).

Positive psychology also lends itself to improvements in the workplace ; studies from the field have found that:

• Positive emotions boost our job performance;
• Positive emotions in the workplace are contagious, which means one positive person or team can have a ripple effect that extends through the entire organization;
• Small, simple actions can have a big impact on our happiness, meaning that it doesn’t take much to encourage your workplace to become a happier and more positive place (Kjerulf, 2016).

One of the benefits of practicing a positive psychological outlook is, to put it broadly, success! Not only does success make us happier, feeling happy and experiencing positive emotions actually increases our chances of success (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005).

However, don’t assume that refusing to brook any encroachment of negative emotions or outlooks will help you reach success. An important finding from positive psychology research is that forcing people who are not naturally optimists to “just think positively” can do more harm than good; unrealistic optimism is detrimental, along with intense pessimism (del Valle & Mateos, 2008; Dillard, Midboe, & Klein, 2009).

Another broad benefit of the positive psychology movement is a more well-defined idea of what “the good life” is.

Renowned positive psychologist Roy F. Baumeister and colleagues took on the challenge of determining what makes a good life, and they found some interesting findings that you can apply to your own life (2013). Their research showed that happiness and a sense of meaning in life do not necessarily go hand-in-hand, indicating that focusing on positive emotions alone will not bring the fulfilling and satisfying life you crave.

Some of their more specific findings included the following:

• The satisfaction of one’s wants and needs boost happiness, but have virtually no impact on meaningfulness; this indicates that focusing on obtaining what you want will increase your happiness, but you may have to supplement to get a deeper sense of meaning .
• Happiness is present-oriented, rooted in the moment, while meaningfulness is more focused on the past and future and how they link to the present; this finding suggests that you can focus on the present to increase your happiness, but you might consider thinking more about your past and future to find meaning.
• “Givers” experience more meaning, while “takers” experience more happiness; if you find yourself lacking in meaning, try giving back to others, but if you are lacking in happiness, try being accepting of others’ generosity to give yourself a boost.
• Worry, stress, and anxiety are more likely to be felt by those whose lives are high in meaningfulness and low in happiness; this indicates that you shouldn’t get too down about experiencing negative emotions if you have a strong sense of meaning—a little negative emotion can actually be a good thing!
• An intention to express your authentic self and a sense of strong personal identity are linked to meaning, but not to happiness; if you are searching for meaning, try working on your practice of authenticity.

Findings such as these have given rise to, and are driven by, a number of interesting theories that pepper the positive psychology literature.

As University of Michigan professor and positive psychology legend Christopher Peterson put it:

“…positive psychology is not to be confused with untested self-help, footless affirmation, or secular religion—no matter how good these may make us feel. Positive psychology is neither a recycled version of the power of positive thinking nor a sequel to The Secret.” (2008)

Peterson goes on to outline the theories and concepts that have resulted from research so far (up to 2008, anyway):

• For the most part, most people are happy;
• Happiness is one of the causes of the good things in life, and also promotes more happiness;
• Most people are pretty resilient;
• Happiness, character strengths, and good social relationships act as buffers against disappointments and setbacks;
• Crises reveal character;
• Other people matter (in terms of what makes life worth living);
• Religion matters (and/or spirituality);
• Work also matters in terms of making life worth living, as long as we are engaged and draw meaning and purpose from it;
• Money has diminishing returns on our happiness after a certain point, but we can buy some happiness by spending money on other people;
• Eudaimonia (wellbeing, deeper form of satisfaction than happiness) is more important than hedonism (sole focus on pleasure and positive emotions) for living the good life;
• The “heart” matters more than the “head,” meaning that things like empathy and compassion are just as important as critical thinking;
• Nearly all good days have three things in common: a sense of autonomy, competence, and connection to others;
• The good life can be taught.

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Applying positive psychology to coaching can be a tricky business, but it is undertaken with the best of intentions and care for others.

In general, the goals of positive psychology in coaching are as follows:

• To positively impact the client’s life—this goal is above all others, and all others feed indirectly into this goal. The main goal of coaching is to improve the client’s life. Positive psychology coaching is no different;
• Increase the client’s experience of positive emotions;
• Help clients identify and develop their strengths and unique talents;
• Enhance the client’s goal-setting and goal-striving abilities;
• Build a sense of hope into the client’s perspective;
• Cultivate the client’s sense of happiness and wellbeing;
• Nurture a sense of gratitude in the client;
• Help the client build and maintain healthy, positive relationships with others;
• Encourage the client to maintain an optimistic outlook;
• Help the client learn to savor every positive moment (Mentor Coach, n.d.; Peppercorn, 2014).

You can probably easily see why the first goal is the biggest, and basically subsumes all the other goals. Each of Goals 2 through 10 can be considered milestones on the way to Goal 1—effective techniques and objectives that help the client and coach work their way towards the client’s biggest life goals .

Where does positive psychology fit within the field of psychology?

Let’s consider a continuum ranging from -5 to +5. -5 represents those in our community who suffer from mental health problems while +5 represents those who are flourishing and living a fulfilling life. 0 represents those who neither have a mental health problem nor are flourishing.

Traditionally, psychology has taken a ‘weakness’ focus, training practitioners to focus on what is going ‘wrong’ with an individual in order to reduce and potentially remove their symptoms. This is a valuable focus and in doing so, practitioners work to move their clients from -5 to 0 on this continuum.

But, how can we go further and help people truly flourish and live a meaningful life? This is where positive psychology comes in. It trains practitioners to consider what is going ‘right’ with an individual and cultivate ways in which to boost their strengths and promote human flourishing.

This is an equally valuable focus and in doing so, practitioners help clients move from 0 to +5 on this continuum and, more importantly, towards positive wellbeing.

The PERMA model is a widely recognized and influential model in positive psychology. Seligman proposed this model to help explain and define wellbeing in greater depth.

“PERMA” is an acronym for the five facets of wellbeing according to Seligman:

• P – Positive Emotions: Even though seeking positive emotions alone is not a very effective way to boost your wellbeing, experiencing positive emotion is still an important factor. Part of wellbeing is enjoying yourself in the moment, i.e., experiencing positive emotions;
• E – Engagement: Having a sense of engagement, in which we may lose track of time and become completely absorbed in something we enjoy and excel at, is an important piece of wellbeing. It’s hard to have a developed sense of wellbeing if you are not truly engaged in anything you do;
• R – (Positive) Relationships: Humans are social creatures, and we rely on connections with others to truly flourish. Having deep, meaningful relationships with others is vital to our wellbeing;
• M – Meaning: Even someone who is deliriously happy most of the time may not have a developed sense of wellbeing if they do not find meaning in their life. When we dedicate ourselves to a cause or recognize something bigger than ourselves, we experience a sense of meaning that there is simply no replacement for;
• A – Accomplishment / Achievement: We all thrive when we are succeeding, achieving our goals, and bettering ourselves. Without a drive to accomplish and achieve, we are missing one of the puzzle pieces of authentic wellbeing (Seligman, 2011).

This model gives us a comprehensive framework for understanding wellbeing as well as a foundation for improving wellbeing. If you’re looking to enhance your own sense of authentic happiness and wellbeing, all you need to do is focus on:

• Experiencing more positive emotions; do more of the things that make you happy, and bring enjoyment into your daily routine;
• Working on upping your engagement; pursue hobbies that interest you, develop your skills, and look for a job more suited to your passions, if necessary;
• Improve the quality (and/or quantity) of your relationships with others; work on building more positive and supportive relationships with your friends, family, and significant other(s);
• Seek out meaning; if you don’t find it through your work, look for it in volunteering opportunities, personal hobbies or leisure activities, or acting as a mentor for others;
• Keep your focus on achieving your goals—but don’t focus too hard; try to keep your ambition in balance with all of the other important things in life (Seligman, 2011).

These five aspects of the PERMA model are measurable, and also vital for an overall sense of wellbeing. This model pushes past the older model of authentic happiness in its consideration of more than just happiness or positive emotions. Of course, positive emotions are important—they’re part of the PERMA model itself, after all—but focusing just on positive emotions will not help you to develop a comprehensive sense of wellbeing, including engagement, meaning, success, and positive relationships with others.

Happiness alone will likely not propel you towards flourishing, but wellbeing will.

Speaking of flourishing, it’s a concept we’ve touched on in this piece already, but have not yet defined. We’ve also mentioned the topic of flow, though indirectly, which is an important concept in positive psychology as well.

Understanding these concepts is vital for understanding the field of positive psychology. Read on to learn more about them.

Flourishing

Flourishing is one of the most significant concepts in positive psychology, as it encompasses and extends to so many other positive concepts.

In short, “flourishing” refers to the state we are in when we pay attention to each aspect of the PERMA model and build up a solid sense of wellbeing. We flourish when we cultivate our talents and strengths, develop deep and meaningful relationships, feel pleasure and enjoyment, and make a meaningful contribution to the world.

We flourish when we find fulfillment in life along with achieving more traditional objectives related to success when we are truly living the “good life” (Seligman, 2011).

Positive psychologist and professor Dr. Lynn Soots (n.d.) describes flourishing as the following:

“Flourishing is the product of the pursuit and engagement of an authentic life that brings inner joy and happiness through meeting goals, being connected with life passions, and relishing in accomplishments through the peaks and valleys of life.”

Further, Soots emphasizes that flourishing is not a trait, a characteristic, or something you “either have or don’t have;” rather, flourishing is a process that requires action. While it might be disappointing that it doesn’t come easy, it’s encouraging to know that, truly, anyone can flourish!

Another well-known topic in positive psychology is that of flow.

The concept of flow was first scientifically explored and defined by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (our second “founding father” of positive psychology).

In the last few decades of the 1900s, Csikszentmihalyi noticed that many artists fell into a particular state while they were working; this state was characterized by a particularly intense focus and great concentration on the task at hand, to the point of losing track of time for hours at a time.

He continued pursuing this topic and noticed it in others as well. Professional athletes, musicians, writers, and people from all sorts of artistic and creative trades frequently reported losing themselves into their work in a similar way. As he gathered more descriptions of this phenomenon, he observed six factors that characterize a flow experience:

• Intense and focused concentration on the present moment;
• The merging of action and awareness, or being fully present in your actions;
• A loss of reflective self-consciousness (lack of attention to the self);
• A sense of personal control or agency in the situation;
• A distorted sense of time passing;
• Experiencing the activity or situation as intrinsically rewarding (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975).

Those who enter into a state of flow are totally immersed in what they’re doing. This immersion arises when the challenges of the activity in front of us are significant and roughly equal to our skill at this activity.

When we have high skill and low challenge, we are bored. When we have a high challenge and low skill, we are overwhelmed. When we have “low skill and low challenge,” we are apathetic. It is only when both our skill and our challenges are high that we enter into a flow state.

Entering into flow is intrinsically rewarding and often an enjoyable experience; flow also seems to link to greater happiness and wellbeing, more academic (and, subsequently, career) success, and more positive and healthy relationships (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1988).

To learn more about flow, Csikszentmihalyi gave an outstanding TED Talk on the subject.

If the video only piqued your interest, you may want to consider buying Csikszentmihalyi’s books on flow:

• Finding Flow:  The Psychology of Engagement with Everyday Life (1998)
• Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience (2008)
• Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention (2013)

Positive psychology principles and exercises can be applied in several different settings, including therapy, the classroom, the workplace, and in your own home.

Some of the techniques that have proven most useful include:

The use of the experience sampling method (or ESM), also referred to as a daily diary method.

Before the days of smartphones, you would be given a beeper or pager that goes off at random points during the day, alerting you to pause, notice what you were thinking, feeling, and doing at that moment, and writing it all down. This is often used in positive interventions to help people realize how much of their day is actually quite positive.

The practice of keeping a gratitude journal.

A gratitude journal offers individuals a method of identifying and reflecting on all of the good things in their lives—all the things they have to be grateful for. Interventions often involve prompting people to write down three things they are grateful for each day, with the only stipulation being that they need to be different each day. Within a week, many people experience a boost in wellbeing along with an increase in gratitude.

Making a gratitude visit.

A gratitude visit (or letter) is an exercise in which an individual identifies a person to whom he or she is grateful and why; once they have these in mind, they can write a letter to this person expressing and explaining their gratitude.

If the person lives close enough to visit, they are encouraged to drop off the letter in person and visit with them; if not, a phone call, video chat, or simply dropping the letter in the mail can work as well. This exercise provides a significant boost to both gratitude and wellbeing.

Focusing on building personal strengths instead of weaknesses.

One of the most significant differences between many other forms of coaching and counseling and one based in positive psychology is the focus on strengths instead of weaknesses.

Positive psychology is based on the idea that building on our strengths is often a more effective path to success than trying to force excellence in areas we are simply not suited for. In practice, this technique involves identifying one’s strengths and working to provide yourself with more opportunities to use them.

Wellbeing therapy.

This holistic approach to therapy is similar to cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) but focuses on both promoting the positive and alleviating the negative in the client’s life.

It is founded on Carol Ryff’s model of wellbeing, which recognizes six facets or factors of wellbeing: mastery of the environment, personal growth, purpose in life, autonomy, self-acceptance, and positive relationships (Harvard Health Publishing, 2008).

Positive psychotherapy.

Positive psychotherapy is similar to wellbeing therapy, but generally packages several techniques and exercises into one treatment. Its focus is on building positive emotions, character strengths, and a sense of meaning in life. Twelve exercises are generally practiced in this form of therapy, including exercises on using your signature strengths, keeping a gratitude journal, making a gratitude visit (Harvard Health Publishing, 2008).

To read more about the power of putting positive psychological principles into practice, check out the aptly titled book, Positive Psychology in Practice , by positive psychologists P. Alex Linley and Stephen Joseph at this link. This book will walk you through the major facets of applying the relevant findings from the positive psychology literature, including:

• The applied positive psychology perspective;
• Historical and philosophical foundations;
• Values and choices in pursuit of the good life;
• Lifestyle practices for health and wellbeing;
• Methods and processes for teaching and learning;
• and positive psychology at work.

For more tools, exercises and techniques of positive psychology, click here  for the free eBook with 3 positive exercises.

World’s Largest Positive Psychology Resource

The Positive Psychology Toolkit© is a groundbreaking practitioner resource containing over 500 science-based exercises , activities, interventions, questionnaires, and assessments created by experts using the latest positive psychology research.

Updated monthly. 100% Science-based.

“The best positive psychology resource out there!” — Emiliya Zhivotovskaya , Flourishing Center CEO

At the 2015 World Conference of Positive Psychology, some of the biggest names in positive psychology discussed a few of these criticisms. Below, we’ll outline some of the major criticisms and an evaluation of their merit in today’s field.

Research findings are often invalid, overstated, and misleading.

Like any other scientific field, mistakes are sometimes made. This often seems to be due to excitement over the potential of findings in positive psychology; it can be hard to maintain objectivity when you feel a finding has both broad and deep applicability to the real world.

However, this is no excuse for a lack of scientific rigor. While there is a bit more leeway in crossing your “t”s and dotting your “i”s in applied research, positive psychologists must be careful to keep their claims within reason and think critically about the limitations of their methods—there is always a limitation!

Today, positive psychology has overcome some of the initial obstacles and growing pains inherent to a new field. More critical attention is being paid to the research, which gives us all more confidence in the findings.

There is too much emphasis on self-report and cross-sectional survey data.

This is certainly a valid point; much of the positive psychology literature is built on survey data. However, this emphasis on survey data is not exclusive to positive psychology, and positive psychology does not exclusively use surveys. Receiving feedback from those close to an individual is increasingly being utilized to corroborate or compare self-report data to, which increases confidence in data.

Although positive psychology is not alone in this limitation, it is one that positive psychologists should continue to consider when planning, implementing and reviewing research.

Positive psychology has a cultural and ethnocentric bias.

It’s true that much of the research in positive psychology has been published by Western scholars, editors, reviewers, and journals. It is also true that positive psychology generally embraces a white, middle-class audience, in which injustice, poverty, and inequality are swept under the rug.

However, this bias seems to have been much over-hyped. Recently, more research from experts in non-Western countries and from a diverse range of backgrounds is being conducted (and published). The recent establishment of the International Positive Psychology Association is one sign of this attempt at broadening the perspective of positive psychology.

The field is too individualistic.

Another valid point is that positive psychology focuses too much on the individual—on personal experiences, individual traits and characteristics, and intrapersonal processes and phenomena. Positive psychology does indeed seem to have an overly narrow focus on the individual and a lack of attention paid to relationships, teams, groups, organizations, and communities.

Some have argued that this focus on individuals leads positive psychology to victim-blame (e.g., “If you can’t figure out how to be happy, it’s your fault”) and excuse those who are contributing to systemic issues (e.g., “It’s too hard to make corporations act ethically, so we’ll just help you make the best of it.”).

Positive psychology is just a promotion of a “Pollyanna” personality type, not an authentic exploration of the good life.

Of the major critiques of positive psychology, this may be one of those with the least merit. Although there is a good deal of research on “ Pollyanna ” types (happy, bubbly, cheerful, extroverted), that research is by no means representative of the entire field.

As cited earlier, there are studies on the dark side of happiness and optimism and the benefits of thinking pessimistically. There are also myriad studies on people from all across the spectrum of personality, from quiet and successful introverts to boisterous and struggling extroverts, and on the lack of fulfillment and meaning in the lives of some of the most “bubbly” individuals.

On the surface, it may seem that positive psychology is the study of the perpetually happy, but anything more than a cursory look will show you that the field is a rich exploration of all that which makes life good (and a bit of what makes it difficult as well).

Some of the criticisms of the field make excellent points.

Rather than struggling against these points, we should be open to considering them, thinking critically about the health of our field, and coming up with solutions for any big problems.

No field is immune from criticism, nor should it be; a healthy debate and a robust peer review process is what will keep positive psychology theory from lapsing into nothing more than an edict to “be positive” and positive psychology interventions from devolving into self-help material that is based on nothing but opinions or wishful thinking.

Watch this video to find out what Positive Psychology means to The Positive Psychology People ( website ) and some of the most influential researchers in the field:

Definition 1:

“Positive psychology is the study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, and institutions.”

Source: Gable, Shelly L., Haidt, Jonathan,  What (and Why) Is Positive Psychology? (PDF), MichaelGeorge.com

Definition 2:

“Positive psychology is the branch of psychology that uses scientific understanding and effective intervention to aid in the achievement of a satisfactory life, rather than merely treating mental illness.”

Source: Wikipedia

Definition 3:

“Positive psychology studies what makes life most worth living.”

Source: Peterson, Christopher, What is positive psychology and what is it not?

Definition 4:

“Positive Psychology is the scientific study of human flourishing, and an applied approach to optimal functioning. It has also been defined as the study of the strengths and virtues that enable individuals, communities, and organisations to thrive.”

Source: Positive Psychology Institute.

Definition 5:

“Positive psychology cannot be confined to any dogmas carved in stone, because it is always subject to influences by new creative ideas, pressing human needs, and changing circumstances.”

According to Paul Wong, the underlying theme of positive psychology is that life can be made better for all people if certain conditions are met.

Source: Wong, Paul T. P., Wong, Lilian C. J., McDonald, Marvin J., Klaassen, Derrick W.,  2012, The Positive Psychology of Meaning and Spirituality

Definition 6:

“Positive psychology is the scientific study of human strengths and virtues.”

According to Martin Seligman —who is seen as the founding father  of positive psychology—the positive psychology movement can be described as:

“The study of what constitutes the pleasant life, the engaged life, and the meaningful life.” 

Source: Batthyany, Alexander, Russo-Netzer, Pninit, Meaning in Positive and Existential Psychology

Definition 7:

“Positive psychology is the scientific and applied approach to uncovering people’s strengths and promoting their positive functioning” (Hugo Alberts).

“Positive psychology studies what is going right with the human mind and behaviour and how to foster these types of wellbeing on both the macro-, group-, and individual-level” (Seph Fontane Pennock).

Source: PositivePsychology.com

What is Positive Psychology and How Did it Come into Being?

The question “what is wrong with people” has guided the thinking of many researchers and dominated countless scientific studies during the 20th century. It is hard to deny that this entails an important question.

In our attempts to answer the question, we have gained more understanding of many illnesses and have developed effective treatments for a wide range of problems.

However, as an inevitable consequence of our focus on the negative aspects of wellbeing and health, such as distress and disease, we developed an almost exclusive attention to pathology.

We believe that science has focused disproportionately on pathology and repair, and devoted relatively little attention to factors that “make life worth living.”

As the 21st century unfolds, however, we are beginning to ask a different question: “What is right about people?”

This question is at the heart of positive psychology, which is the scientific and applied approach to uncovering people’s strengths and promoting their positive functioning.

During the past 14 years, the number of scientific studies on positive psychology has increased tremendously. In addition, countless interventions have been developed to increase people’s wellbeing.

17 Top-Rated Positive Psychology Exercises for Practitioners

Expand your arsenal and impact with these 17 Positive Psychology Exercises [PDF] , scientifically designed to promote human flourishing, meaning, and wellbeing.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

We hope this article has given you a good understanding of positive psychology—what it is, what it isn’t, where it’s been, and where it’s going.

Positive psychology is a field with a huge potential for improving the lives of people around the world, and many impactful findings have already been discovered.

The bottom line is this: if you want to keep up in the world of coaching, teaching, counseling, therapy, and a dozen other domains, make sure to keep an eye out for what’s new in positive psychology!

What are your thoughts on the state of the field? Do you think there are bigger criticisms that are being ignored? Do you think the field is doing a good job at solving the problems it set out to solve? What do you think is the “next big thing” in positive psychology? Please let us know in the comments section below.

Thanks for reading!

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .

• Aknin, L. B., Norton, M. I., & Dunn, E. W. (2009) From wealth to well-being? Money matters, but less than people think, The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 523-527. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760903271421
• Barraza, J. A., & Zak, P. J. (2009). Empathy towards strangers triggers oxytocin release and subsequent generosity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1167, 182-189. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04504.x
• Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., Aaker, J., & Garbinsky, E. N. (2012). Some key differences between a happy life and a meaningful life. Journal of Positive Psychology, 8, 505-516. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2013.830764
• Del Valle, C. H. C., & Mateos, P. M. (2008). Dispositional pessimism, defensive pessimism and optimism: The effect of induced mood on prefactual and counterfactual thinking and performance. Cognition & Emotion, 22, 1600-1612. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930801940289
• Dillard, A. J., Midboe, A. M., & Klein, W. M. P. (2009). The dark side of optimism: Unrealistic optimism about problems with alcohol predicts subsequent negative event experiences. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 1540-1550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167209343124
• Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319, 1687-1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952
• Fowler, J. H., & Christakis, N. A. (2008). Dynamic spread of happiness in a large social network: Longitudinal analysis over 20 years in the Framingham Heart Study. The BMJ, 337. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.a2338
• Harvard Health Publishing. (2008). Positive psychology in practice. Harvard Mental Health Letter. Retrieved from https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/positive_psychology_in_practice
• Howell, R. T., & Hill, G. (2009). The mediators of experiential purchases: Determining the impact of psychological needs satisfaction and social comparison. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 511–522. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760903270993
• Jenkinson, C. E., Dickens, A. P., Jones, K., Thompson-Coon, J., Taylor, R. S., Rogers, M., Bambra, C. L.,…, & Richards, S. H. (2013). Is volunteering a public health intervention? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the health and survival of volunteers. BMC Public Health, 13, 773-782. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-773
• Kjerulf, A. (2016, January 18). The 5 most important findings from the science of happiness that apply at work. The Chief Happiness Officer Blog. Retrieved from https://positivesharing.com/2016/01/positive-psychology-at-work/
• Layous, K., Nelson, S. K., Oberle, E., Schonert-Reichl, K. A., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012). Kindness counts: Prompting prosocial behavior in preadolescents boosts peer acceptance and well-being. PLoS ONE, 7. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051380
• Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131 , 803-855. https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2005-15687-001
• Mentor Coach LLC. (n.d.). What IS positive psychology? MentorCoach – Positive Psychology & Coaching. Retrieved from http://www.mentorcoach.com/positive-psychology-coaching/
• Peppercorn, S. (2014). The benefits of positive psychology coaching. Positive Workplace Partners. Retrieved from http://positiveworkplacepartners.com/the-benefits-of-positive-psychology-coaching/
• Peterson, C. (2008). What is positive psychology, and what is it not? Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-good-life/200805/what-is-positive-psychology-and-what-is-it-not
• Scott, B. A., & Barnes, C. M. (2011). A multilevel field investigation of emotional labor, affect, work withdrawal, and gender. Academy of Management Journal, 54 , 116-136. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2011.59215086
• Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York City, NY: Atria Books. https://www.amazon.com/dp/1439190763/
• Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, S. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60 , 410-421. https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2005-08033-003
• Soots, L. (n.d.). Flourishing. Positive Psychology People. Retrieved from http://www.thepositivepsychologypeople.com/flourishing/

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Asslamoalikum, I am Assistant professor in a graduate college and serving in the department of Applied psychology. I studied this article which is very informative and helpful for my students. I really appreciate it.thanks.

I am a retired primary care physician. My career has focused on getting needed care to persons in the greatest need. The process of getting the best solutions to all the population is desperately in need of an improved understanding of how to help the entire population (which includes care givers, care receivers and the complex of citizens who fund care and organize that care) to change nonproductive behavior. I’m convinced very few of us understand what knowledge and values are essential to inform all of us to play more constructive and compassionate roles. Without positive psychology such reorganization would remain a distant dream. With this reorientation of how to consider encouraging the best human flourishing there is reason to be more optimistic!

Hello, I am not a psychologist but love the science in psychology! I am a teacher and more concerned with students’ career guidance.For this matter,I would prefer including ‘Positive Psychology’ as a subject in Secondary school curriculum if we are to help everyone without waiting for counselling classes later on when someone is referred to as “a client” -who will possibly be a patient at that time. This can help students catch up with living focused,valued lives much earlier in life instead of waiting to treat the signs and symptoms of negative psychology. My suggestion is just a preventive measure!(Talking from Africa;I don’t know the stand else where).

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Writing in Psychology Overview

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Psychology is based on the study of human behaviors. As a social science, experimental psychology uses empirical inquiry to help understand human behavior. According to Thrass and Sanford (2000), psychology writing has three elements: describing, explaining, and understanding concepts from a standpoint of empirical investigation.

Discipline-specific writing, such as writing done in psychology, can be similar to other types of writing you have done in the use of the writing process, writing techniques, and in locating and integrating sources. However, the field of psychology also has its own rules and expectations for writing; not everything that you have learned in about writing in the past works for the field of psychology.

Writing in psychology includes the following principles:

• Using plain language : Psychology writing is formal scientific writing that is plain and straightforward. Literary devices such as metaphors, alliteration, or anecdotes are not appropriate for writing in psychology.
• Conciseness and clarity of language : The field of psychology stresses clear, concise prose. You should be able to make connections between empirical evidence, theories, and conclusions. See our OWL handout on conciseness for more information.
• Evidence-based reasoning: Psychology bases its arguments on empirical evidence. Personal examples, narratives, or opinions are not appropriate for psychology.
• Use of APA format: Psychologists use the American Psychological Association (APA) format for publications. While most student writing follows this format, some instructors may provide you with specific formatting requirements that differ from APA format .

Types of writing

Most major writing assignments in psychology courses consists of one of the following two types.

Experimental reports: Experimental reports detail the results of experimental research projects and are most often written in experimental psychology (lab) courses. Experimental reports are write-ups of your results after you have conducted research with participants. This handout provides a description of how to write an experimental report .

Critical analyses or reviews of research : Often called "term papers," a critical analysis of research narrowly examines and draws conclusions from existing literature on a topic of interest. These are frequently written in upper-division survey courses. Our research paper handouts provide a detailed overview of how to write these types of research papers.

Critical Thinking: What It Is and Why It Matters

Defining critical thinking dispositions and why they’re crucial..

Posted September 23, 2024 | Reviewed by Devon Frye

• Another way to think about and measure critical thinking is to include aspects of motivational dispositions.
• Dispositions include open-mindedness and a willingness to be reflective when evaluating information.
• People scoring low in critical thinking dispositions tend to “keep it simple” when something is complex.
• Critical thinking dispositions help individuals avoid oversimplification and can facilitate awareness of bias.

Critical thinking springs from the notion of reflective thought proposed by Dewey (1933), who borrowed from the work of philosophers such as William James and Charles Peirce. Reflective thought was defined as the process of suspending judgment, remaining open-minded, maintaining a healthy skepticism, and taking responsibility for one’s own development (Gerber et al., 2005; Stoyanov & Kirshner, 2007).

Kurland (1995) suggested, “Critical thinking is concerned with reason, intellectual honesty, and open-mindedness, as opposed to emotionalism, intellectual laziness, and closed-mindedness. Thus, critical thinking involves… considering all possibilities… being precise; considering a variety of possible viewpoints and explanations; weighing the effects of motives and biases; being concerned more with finding the truth than with being right…being aware of one’s own prejudices and biases” (p. 3). Thus, being able to perspective-take and becoming conscious of one’s own biases are potential benefits of critical thinking capacities.

Reviews of the critical thinking literature (e.g., Bensley, 2023) suggest that the assessment of this construct ought to include aspects of motivational dispositions. Numerous frameworks of critical thinking dispositions have been proposed (e.g., Bensley, 2018; Butler & Halpern, 2019; Dwyer, 2017); some commonly identified dispositions are open-mindedness, intellectual engagement, and a proclivity to take a reflective stance or approach to evaluating information and the views and beliefs of both oneself and others. Demir (2022) posited that critical thinking dispositions reflect persons’ attitudes toward and routine ways of responding to new information and diverging ideas, willingness to engage in nuanced and complex rather than either/or reductionistic thinking, and perseverance in attempts to understand and resolve complex problems.

Other examples of dispositions are inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, tolerance for ambiguity, thinking about thinking, honesty in assessing or evaluating biases, and willingness to reconsider one’s own views and ways of doing things (Facione et al., 2001). Individual personality attributes associated with these proclivities include a need for cognition (a desire for intellectual stimulation), which is positively associated with critical thinking, and the need for closure (a motivated cognitive style in which individuals prefer predictability, firm answers, and rapid decision making ) and anti-intellectualism (a resentment of “the life of the mind” and those who represent it), both negatively associated with critical thinking.

Further, an ideological component that can impede critical thinking is dogmatism . In addition, rigid, dichotomous thinking impedes critical thinking in that it oversimplifies the complexity of social life in a pluralistic society (Bensley, 2023; Cheung et al., 2002; Halpern & Dunn, 2021) and tries to reduce complicated phenomena and resolve complex problems via “either/or” formulations and simplistic solutions.

In other words, folks with low critical thinking dispositions would tend to “keep it simple” when something is really quite complicated, and think it absolute terms and categories rather than seeing “the gray” in between the black and white extremes.

In sum, critical thinking dispositions are vitally important because they may help individuals avoid oversimplifying reality; they also permit perspective-taking and can facilitate their awareness of diversity and systematic biases, such as racial or gender bias . Some research has indicated that critical thinking dispositions uniquely contribute to academic performance beyond general cognition (Ren et al., 2020), and may help to reduce unsubstantiated claims and conspiracy beliefs (Bensley, 2023; Lantian et al., 2021).

But before we can study the potential impact of critical thinking dispositions, it is necessary to have a reliable, valid, and hopefully brief measure for this construct. I will discuss the development and validation of a measure of critical thinking dispositions in another post.

Bensley, D.A. ( 2023.) Critical thinking, intelligence, and unsubstantiated beliefs: An integrative review. Journal of Intelligence, 1 , 207. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11110207

Bensley, D.A. (2018). Critical thinking in psychology and everyday life: A guide to effective thinking . New York: Worth Publishers.

Butler, H.A., & Halpern, D.F. (2019). Is critical thinking a better model of intelligence? In Robert J. Sternberg (Ed.) The Nature of Intelligence (pp. 183–96). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cheung, C.-K, Rudowicz. E., Kwan, A., & Yue, X.. (2002). Assessing university students’ general and specific criticalthinking. College Student Journal, 36 , 504 – 25.

Demir, E. (2022). An examination of high school students’ critical thinking dispositions and analytical thinking skills. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 6 , 190–200. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202217357

Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process . Lexington: Heath and Company.

Dwyer, C. P. (2017). Critical thinking: Conceptual perspectives and practical guidelines . Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Facione, P., Facione, N,C,, & Giancarlo, C.A.F. (2001(. California Critical Disposition Inventory . Millbrae: California Academic Press.

Gerber, S., Scott, L., Clements, D.H., & Sarama, J. (2005). Instructor influence on reasoned argument in discussion boards. Educational Technology, Research & Development, 53 , 25–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02504864

Halpern, D. F., & Dunn, D.S. (2021). Critical thinking: A model of intelligence for solving real-world problems. Journal of Intelligence, 9 , 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9020022

Kurland, D. (1995). I know what it says… What does it mean? Critical skills for critical reading . Belmont: Wadsworth.

Lantian, A., Bagneux, V., Delouvee, S., & Gauvrit, N. (2021). Maybe a free thinker but not a critical one: High conspiracybelief is associated with low critical thinking ability. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 35 , 674 – 84. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3790

Ren, X., Tong, Y., Peng, P. & Wang, T. (2020). Critical thinking predicts academic performance beyond general cognitiveability: Evidence from adults and children. Intelligence, 82 , 101487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2020.101487

Stoyanov, S., & Kirschner, P. ( 2007). Effect of problem solving support and cognitive styles on idea generation:Implications for technology-enhanced learning. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 40 , 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2007.10782496

Kyle D. Killian, Ph.D., LMFT is the author of Interracial Couples, Intimacy and Therapy: Crossing Racial Borders.

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50+ Research Topics for Psychology Papers

How to Find Psychology Research Topics for Your Student Paper

• Specific Branches of Psychology
• Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy
• Human Cognition
• Human Development
• Critique of Publications
• Famous Experiments
• Historical Figures
• Specific Careers
• Case Studies
• Literature Reviews
• Your Own Study/Experiment

Are you searching for a great topic for your psychology paper ? Sometimes it seems like coming up with topics of psychology research is more challenging than the actual research and writing. Fortunately, there are plenty of great places to find inspiration and the following list contains just a few ideas to help get you started.

Finding a solid topic is one of the most important steps when writing any type of paper. It can be particularly important when you are writing a psychology research paper or essay. Psychology is such a broad topic, so you want to find a topic that allows you to adequately cover the subject without becoming overwhelmed with information.

I can always tell when a student really cares about the topic they chose; it comes through in the writing. My advice is to choose a topic that genuinely interests you, so you’ll be more motivated to do thorough research.

In some cases, such as in a general psychology class, you might have the option to select any topic from within psychology's broad reach. Other instances, such as in an  abnormal psychology  course, might require you to write your paper on a specific subject such as a psychological disorder.

As you begin your search for a topic for your psychology paper, it is first important to consider the guidelines established by your instructor.

Research Topics Within Specific Branches of Psychology

The key to selecting a good topic for your psychology paper is to select something that is narrow enough to allow you to really focus on the subject, but not so narrow that it is difficult to find sources or information to write about.

One approach is to narrow your focus down to a subject within a specific branch of psychology. For example, you might start by deciding that you want to write a paper on some sort of social psychology topic. Next, you might narrow your focus down to how persuasion can be used to influence behavior .

Other social psychology topics you might consider include:

• Prejudice and discrimination (i.e., homophobia, sexism, racism)
• Social cognition
• Person perception
• Social control and cults
• Persuasion, propaganda, and marketing
• Attraction, romance, and love
• Nonverbal communication
• Prosocial behavior

Psychology Research Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy

Exploring a psychological disorder or a specific treatment modality can also be a good topic for a psychology paper. Some potential abnormal psychology topics include specific psychological disorders or particular treatment modalities, including:

• Eating disorders
• Borderline personality disorder
• Seasonal affective disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Antisocial personality disorder
• Profile a  type of therapy  (i.e., cognitive-behavioral therapy, group therapy, psychoanalytic therapy)

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Cognition

Some of the possible topics you might explore in this area include thinking, language, intelligence, and decision-making. Other ideas might include:

• False memories
• Speech disorders
• Problem-solving

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Development

In this area, you might opt to focus on issues pertinent to  early childhood  such as language development, social learning, or childhood attachment or you might instead opt to concentrate on issues that affect older adults such as dementia or Alzheimer's disease.

Some other topics you might consider include:

• Language acquisition
• Media violence and children
• Learning disabilities
• Gender roles
• Child abuse
• Prenatal development
• Parenting styles
• Aspects of the aging process

Do a Critique of Publications Involving Psychology Research Topics

One option is to consider writing a critique paper of a published psychology book or academic journal article. For example, you might write a critical analysis of Sigmund Freud's Interpretation of Dreams or you might evaluate a more recent book such as Philip Zimbardo's  The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil .

Professional and academic journals are also great places to find materials for a critique paper. Browse through the collection at your university library to find titles devoted to the subject that you are most interested in, then look through recent articles until you find one that grabs your attention.

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Famous Experiments

There have been many fascinating and groundbreaking experiments throughout the history of psychology, providing ample material for students looking for an interesting term paper topic. In your paper, you might choose to summarize the experiment, analyze the ethics of the research, or evaluate the implications of the study. Possible experiments that you might consider include:

• The Milgram Obedience Experiment
• The Stanford Prison Experiment
• The Little Albert Experiment
• Pavlov's Conditioning Experiments
• The Asch Conformity Experiment
• Harlow's Rhesus Monkey Experiments

Topics of Psychology Research About Historical Figures

One of the simplest ways to find a great topic is to choose an interesting person in the  history of psychology  and write a paper about them. Your paper might focus on many different elements of the individual's life, such as their biography, professional history, theories, or influence on psychology.

While this type of paper may be historical in nature, there is no need for this assignment to be dry or boring. Psychology is full of fascinating figures rife with intriguing stories and anecdotes. Consider such famous individuals as Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, Harry Harlow, or one of the many other  eminent psychologists .

Psychology Research Topics About a Specific Career

​Another possible topic, depending on the course in which you are enrolled, is to write about specific career paths within the  field of psychology . This type of paper is especially appropriate if you are exploring different subtopics or considering which area interests you the most.

In your paper, you might opt to explore the typical duties of a psychologist, how much people working in these fields typically earn, and the different employment options that are available.

Topics of Psychology Research Involving Case Studies

One potentially interesting idea is to write a  psychology case study  of a particular individual or group of people. In this type of paper, you will provide an in-depth analysis of your subject, including a thorough biography.

Generally, you will also assess the person, often using a major psychological theory such as  Piaget's stages of cognitive development  or  Erikson's eight-stage theory of human development . It is also important to note that your paper doesn't necessarily have to be about someone you know personally.

In fact, many professors encourage students to write case studies on historical figures or fictional characters from books, television programs, or films.

Psychology Research Topics Involving Literature Reviews

Another possibility that would work well for a number of psychology courses is to do a literature review of a specific topic within psychology. A literature review involves finding a variety of sources on a particular subject, then summarizing and reporting on what these sources have to say about the topic.

Literature reviews are generally found in the  introduction  of journal articles and other  psychology papers , but this type of analysis also works well for a full-scale psychology term paper.

Topics of Psychology Research Based on Your Own Study or Experiment

Many psychology courses require students to design an actual psychological study or perform some type of experiment. In some cases, students simply devise the study and then imagine the possible results that might occur. In other situations, you may actually have the opportunity to collect data, analyze your findings, and write up your results.

Finding a topic for your study can be difficult, but there are plenty of great ways to come up with intriguing ideas. Start by considering your own interests as well as subjects you have studied in the past.

Online sources, newspaper articles, books , journal articles, and even your own class textbook are all great places to start searching for topics for your experiments and psychology term papers. Before you begin, learn more about  how to conduct a psychology experiment .

What This Means For You

After looking at this brief list of possible topics for psychology papers, it is easy to see that psychology is a very broad and diverse subject. While this variety makes it possible to find a topic that really catches your interest, it can sometimes make it very difficult for some students to select a good topic.

If you are still stumped by your assignment, ask your instructor for suggestions and consider a few from this list for inspiration.

• Hockenbury, SE & Nolan, SA. Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers; 2014.
• Santrock, JW. A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2016.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Home — Essay Samples — Philosophy — Empiricism — The Importance Of Empiricism In Psychology

The Importance of Empiricism in Psychology

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